There are many cultural references to donkeys, in myth, folklore and religion, in language and in literature.
There are many cultural references to donkeys, in myth, folklore and religion, in language and in literature.
Due to its widespread domestication and use, the donkey is referred to in myth and folklore around the world. In classical and ancient cultures, donkeys had a part. The donkey was the symbol of the Egyptian sun god Ra. [1] In Greek myth, Silenus is pictured in Classical Antiquity and during the Renaissance (illustration, left) drunken and riding a donkey, and Midas was given the ears of an ass after misjudging a musical competition. [2]
Donkeys (or asses) are mentioned many times in the Bible, beginning in the first book and continuing through both Old and New Testaments, so they became part of Judeo-Christian tradition. They are portrayed as work animals, used for agricultural purposes, transport and as beasts of burden, and terminology is used to differentiate age and gender. In contrast, horses were represented only in the context of war, ridden by cavalry or pulling chariots. Owners were protected by law from loss caused by the death or injury of a donkey, showing their value in that time period. Narrative turning points in the Bible (and other stories) are often marked through the use of donkeys — for instance, leading, saddling, or mounting/dismounting a donkey are used to show a change in focus or a decision having been made. [3] They are used as a measure of wealth in Genesis 30:43, [4] and in Genesis chapter 34, the prince of Shechem (the modern Nablus) is named Hamor ("donkey" in Hebrew). [5] [6]
According to prophecy within the Hebrew Bible, the Messiah is said to arrive on a donkey: "Behold, your King is coming to you; He is just and having salvation, Lowly and riding on a donkey, A colt, the foal of a donkey!" (Zechariah 9:9). According to the New Testament, this prophecy was fulfilled when Jesus entered Jerusalem riding on the animal (Matthew 21:4-7, John 12:14-15). Jesus appeared to be aware of this connection (Matthew 21:1-3, John 12:16).
In the Jewish religion, the donkey is not a kosher animal. In the Zohar, it is considered avi avot hatuma i.e. an ultimate impure animal, and doubly "impure", as it is both non-ruminant and non-cloven hoofed. However, it is the only impure animal that falls under the mitzvah (commandment) of firstborn ("bechor") consecration that also applies to humans and pure animals (See Petter Chamor). In Jewish Oral Tradition (Talmud Bavli), the son of David was prophesied as riding on a donkey if the tribes of Israel are undeserving of redemption. [7]
In contemporary Israel, the term "Messiah's Donkey" (Chamoro Shel Mashiach חמורו של משיח) stands at the centre of a controversial religious-political doctrine, under which it was the Heavenly-imposed "task" of secular Zionists to build up a Jewish State, but once the state is established they are fated to give place to the Religious who are ordained to lead the state. The secularists in this analogy are "The Donkey" while the religious who are fated to supplant them are a collective "Messiach". A book on the subject, published in 1998 by the militant secularist Sefi Rechlevsky, aroused a major controversy in the Israeli public opinion. [8]
With the rise of Christianity, some believers came to see the cross-shaped marking present on donkeys' backs and shoulders as a symbol of the animal's bearing Jesus into Jerusalem on Palm Sunday. During the Middle Ages,[ when? ] Europeans used hairs from this cross (or contact with a donkey) as folk remedies to treat illness, including measles and whooping cough. [9] Around 1400 AD, one physician listed riding backwards on a donkey as a cure for scorpion stings. [10]
Donkeys are also referred to repeatedly in the writings and imagery of the Hinduism, where the goddess Kalaratri's vahana (vehicle) is a donkey. [11] Donkeys also appear multiple times in Indian folklore as the subject of stories in both the Hitopadesha [12] and the Panchatantra. [13]
In Islam, eating the meat of domestic donkeys is forbidden. [14]
Donkeys hold a significant place in literature, especially in Western cultures. The original representations of donkeys in Western literature come mainly from the Bible and Ancient Greece. Donkeys were represented in a fairly negative form by the Greeks, but perceptions later changed, partially due to donkeys becoming increasingly symbolically connected to Christianity. Donkeys were found in the works of Homer, Aesop and Apuleius, where they were generally portrayed as stupid and stubborn, or servile at best, and generally represented the lower class. They were often contrasted with horses, which were seen as powerful and beautiful. Aesop's The Ass in the Lion's Skin , representational of the almost 20 of his fables that portray donkeys, shows the donkey as a fool. Apuleius's The Golden Ass (160 AD), where the narrator is turned into a donkey, is also notable for its portrayal of donkeys as stubborn, foolish, wicked and lowly. This work had a large influence on the portrayal of donkeys in later cultures, including medieval and renaissance Europe. During this time, donkeys continued to be shown as stupid, clumsy and slow. Shakespeare popularised the use of the word "ass" as an insult meaning stupid or clownish in many of his plays, including Bottom's appearance in A Midsummer Night's Dream (1600). In contrast, a few years later, Miguel de Cervantes writes a more positive slant on the donkey in his novel Don Quixote , primarily as Sancho Panza's mount, portraying them as steady and loyal companions. This difference is possibly due to donkeys being an important aspect of many Spaniards' lives at this point in time. [15]
In contrast to Grecian works, donkeys were portrayed in Biblical works as symbols of service, suffering, peace and humility. They are also associated with the theme of wisdom in the Hebrew Bible's story of Balaam's ass, and are seen in a positive light through the story of Jesus riding into Jerusalem on a donkey. By the 19th century, the donkey was portrayed with more positive attributes by popular authors. William Wordsworth portrayed the donkey as loyal and patient in his 1819 poem Peter Bell:A Tale , using the donkey as a Christian symbol. Robert Louis Stevenson in Travels with a Donkey (1879), portrays the animal as a stubborn beast of burden. Sympathetic portrayals return in Juan Ramon Jimenez's Platero and I. The melancholy Eeyore in Winnie the Pooh (first published in 1926) is arguably the most famous donkey in Western literature. [15]
Donkeys were featured in literature during the 20th century, including in George Orwell's 1951 Animal Farm , where Benjamin the donkey is portrayed as a resilient and loyal friend to Boxer the horse, as well as being wise, but he is also shown to be cynical about change and, like Eeyore, is resigned to his lot not improving. [15] Puzzle is a well-meaning but easily manipulated donkey in C. S. Lewis's 1956 The Last Battle . [16] Brighty is the central character of the 1953 children's novel and 1967 film Brighty of the Grand Canyon .[ citation needed ] Donkeys are portrayed in film including the 1940 Disney animated films Fantasia and Pinocchio , where the Coachman and his henchmen turning boys into donkeys in Pleasure Island, and in the segment of Beethoven's Symphony No. 6, also known as The Pastoral Symphony a unicorn donkey named Jacchus with Bacchus and is attacked by Zeus. [17] A donkey is featured as the main figure in the 1966 film Au hasard Balthazar by Robert Bresson, and, is given a life path of Christian symbolism. [15] The major character Donkey, voiced by Eddie Murphy, features significantly within the Shrek film franchise. [18] The logo and brand identity of popular YouTuber Videogamedunkey features a cartoon donkey. [19]
The symbolic use of the ass in philosophy and literature has been prevalent for centuries. It was increasingly used in the renaissance era from thinkers including Jean Buridan (1330-1358), Machiavelli (1469-1527) and Cornelius Agrippa (1486-1535). The philosopher Jean Buridan (1300-1358) proposed a dilemma in which a hypothetical donkey suffering from hunger and thirst finds itself halfway between a bucket of fresh water and enjoyable bales of hay. This makes the donkey perplexed, as it does not know whether to quench its thirst first or appease its hunger later or the vice versa. Its indecisiveness leads to its perish. This allegory could be taken as the cost of human inaction or as the total lack of free will versus determinism in human life. [20]
Agrippa placed apostles on a level with asses. He regarded the donkey as a means to achieve divinity: “From what I have said, it is clear as day that no other animal is in a better position than the ass to receive the divine. If you do not look to the ass, you will be no position to receive the divine mysteries.” (p. ix) Machiavelli complained that “in the form of an ass, he had toiled and suffered to discover “more bad than good” at the every level of the world. [21] Giordano Bruno (1548-1600) is another philosopher of the Renaissance Era who utilised the fictitious exposition of the donkey to achieve theoretical depth. In his long journey to explore the opposite aspects of the phenomenon of asininity, he combines the delicacy of an artist and the depth of a great philosopher: “according to cabalistic revelations…, the ass or asininity is the symbol of wisdom”; “pray, pray my dearest ones, that God may transform into asses if you are not already asses”; “Strive, strive, therefore, to be asses, who you are men”. [21]
In his masterpiece, In Praise of Folly , the Dutch philosopher Erasmus of Rotterdam (1466-1506) depicted the concept of asininity and applied it to the high-ranking echelons of the society including kings, lawyers, grammarians, boastful theologians and even the pope himself. [22]
In keeping with their widespread cultural references, donkeys feature in political systems, symbols and terminology in many areas of the world. A "donkey vote" is a vote that simply writes down preferences in the order of the candidates (1 at the top, then 2, and so on), and is most often seen in countries with ranked voting systems and compulsory voting, such as Australia. [23] The donkey is a common symbol of the Democratic Party of the United States, originating in the 1830s and became popularised from a cartoon by Thomas Nast of Harper's Weekly in 1870. [24]
The bray of the donkey may be used as a simile for loud and foolish speech in political mockery. [25] [26] For example, [27]
There are braying men in the world as well as braying asses; for what's loud and senseless talking and swearing, any other than braying
In 1963, Party of Donkeys, a frivolous political party was founded in Iran. [28]
The ruc català or burro català (Catalan donkey) has become a symbol of Catalonia in Spain. In 2003 some friends in Catalonia made bumper stickers featuring the burro català as a reaction against a national advertising campaign for Toro d'Osborne, a brandy. The burro became popular as a nationalist symbol in Catalonia, whose residents wanted to assert their identity to resist Spanish centralism. Renewed attention to the regional burro helped start a breeding campaign for its preservation, and its numbers have increased. [29]
Proshka, an ass owned by the Russian populist nationalist politician Vladimir Zhirinovsky of the Liberal Democratic Party of Russia, became prominent during the 2012 Russian presidential election campaign, when he was filmed in an election advertisement video. In that controversial ad, Zhirinovsky appeared sitting in a sleigh harnessed with Proshka, then claiming that the "little wretched ass" is the symbol of Russia and that if he would become President a "daring troika" would return as a symbol of Russia instead of the ass; at the end, Zhirinovsky beat Proshka with a whip, made the ass move and had a ride on him through the snow-covered backyard of his dacha. International organisations People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) and World Animal Protection have accused Zhirinovsky of cruelty to animals. Zhirinovsky replied to the assertions by stating that similar treatment is commonplace in the Arab world and claimed that his ass has been treated "better than many people". [30]
Many cultures have colloquialisms and proverbs that include donkeys or asses. British phrases include "to talk the hind legs off a donkey", used to describe someone talking excessively and generally persuasively. [31] Donkeys are the animals featured most often in Greek proverbs, including such statements of fatalistic resignation as "the donkey lets the rain soak him". [32] The French philosopher Jean Buridan constructed the paradox called Buridan's ass, in which a donkey, placed exactly midway between water and food, would die of hunger and thirst because he could not find a reason to choose one of the options over the other, and so would never make a decision. [33] Italy has several phrases regarding donkeys, including "put your money in the anus of a donkey and they'll call him sir" (meaning, if you're rich, you'll get respect) and "women, donkeys and goats all have heads" (meaning, women are as stubborn as donkeys and goats). [34] The United States developed its own expressions, including "better a donkey that carries me than a horse that throws me", "a donkey looks beautiful to a donkey", and "a donkey is but a donkey though laden with gold", among others. [35] From Afghanistan, the Pashto proverb "Even if a donkey goes to Mecca, he is still a donkey." refers to being the same no matter where the subject goes.[ citation needed ] In Ethiopia, there are many Amharic proverbs that demean donkeys, such as, "The heifer that spends time with a donkey learns to fart" (Bad company corrupts good morals).[ citation needed ]
The words "donkey" and "ass" (or translations thereof) have come to have derogatory or insulting meaning in several languages, and generally means someone who is obstinate, stupid or silly, [36] [37] [38] [39] In football, especially in the United Kingdom, a player who is considered unskilful is often dubbed a "donkey", [36] and the term has a similar connotation in poker. [40] In the US, the slang terms "dumbass" and "jackass" are used to refer to someone considered stupid. [41] [42]
The Book of Proverbs is a book in the third section of the Hebrew Bible and a book of the Christian Old Testament. When translated into Greek and Latin, the title took on different forms: in the Greek Septuagint (LXX) it became Παροιμίαι ; in the Latin Vulgate the title was Proverbia, from which the English name is derived.
The donkey is a domesticated equine. It derives from the African wild ass, Equus africanus, and may be classified either as a subspecies thereof, Equus africanus asinus, or as a separate species, Equus asinus. It was domesticated in Africa some 5000–7000 years ago, and has been used mainly as a working animal since that time.
A zebroid is the offspring of any cross between a zebra and any other equine to create a hybrid. In most cases, the sire is a zebra stallion. The offspring of a donkey sire and zebra dam, called a donkra, and the offspring of a horse sire and a zebra dam, called a hebra, do exist, but are rare and are usually sterile. Zebroids have been bred since the 19th century. Charles Darwin noted several zebra hybrids in his works.
Buridan's ass is an illustration of a paradox in philosophy in the conception of free will. It refers to a hypothetical situation wherein an ass (donkey) that is equally hungry and thirsty is placed precisely midway between a stack of hay and a pail of water. Since the paradox assumes the donkey will always go to whichever is closer, it dies of both hunger and thirst since it cannot make any rational decision between the hay and water. A common variant of the paradox substitutes the hay and water for two identical piles of hay; the ass, unable to choose between the two, dies of hunger.
Equus is a genus of mammals in the family Equidae, which includes horses, asses, and zebras. Within the Equidae, Equus is the only recognized extant genus, comprising seven living species. Like Equidae more broadly, Equus has numerous extinct species known only from fossils. The genus most likely originated in North America and spread quickly to the Old World. Equines are odd-toed ungulates with slender legs, long heads, relatively long necks, manes, and long tails. All species are herbivorous, and mostly grazers, with simpler digestive systems than ruminants but able to subsist on lower-quality vegetation.
Dunce is a mild insult in English meaning "a person who is slow at learning or stupid". The etymology given by Richard Stanyhurst is that the word is derived from the name of the Scottish Scholastic theologian and philosopher John Duns Scotus.
The African wild ass or African wild donkey is a wild member of the horse family, Equidae. This species is thought to be the ancestor of the domestic donkey, which is sometimes placed within the same species. They live in the deserts and other arid areas of the Horn of Africa, in Eritrea, Ethiopia and Somalia. It formerly had a wider range north and west into Sudan, Egypt, and Libya. It is Critically Endangered, with about 570 wild asses existing in the wild.
This is a list of animals whose names appear in the Bible. The Bible names over 120 species of animals by current interpretive standards. The more a particular animal abounded in the Holy Land, the more frequent allusions to it may be found. Whenever required for the identification, the Hebrew name will be indicated, as well as the scientific name.
Pack burro racing is a sport in Colorado, Arizona, California, and New Mexico that is rooted in the various western state's mining histories. In the early days of the mining industry in Colorado, miners would take donkeys through the mountains of Colorado while prospecting. Because the burros were carrying supplies, the miners could not ride the animals and so they would walk, leading the donkey. Burro races are held throughout small towns in Colorado, Arizona, California, and New Mexico to commemorate the miners and their burros. In 2012, pack burro racing was recognized as the official "summer heritage sport" in Colorado.
The Land of Toys is a fictional location in the Italian novel The Adventures of Pinocchio (1883) that is disguised as a haven of freedom and anarchy for children, but is eventually discovered to be far more sinister.
The word asshole or arsehole, is a vulgarism used to describe the anus, and often used pejoratively to refer to people.
In Greek mythology, Priapus is a minor rustic fertility god, protector of livestock, fruit plants, gardens, and male genitalia. Priapus is marked by his oversized, permanent erection, which gave rise to the medical term priapism. He became a popular figure in Roman erotic art and Latin literature, and is the subject of the often humorously obscene collection of verse called the Priapeia.
The Ass in the Lion's Skin is one of Aesop's Fables, of which there are two distinct versions. There are also several Eastern variants, and the story's interpretation varies accordingly.
The triumphal entry into Jerusalem is a narrative in the four canonical Gospels describing the arrival of Jesus in Jerusalem a few days before his crucifixion. This event is celebrated each year by Christians on Palm Sunday.
North American donkeys constitute approximately 0.1% of the worldwide donkey population. Donkeys were brought from Europe to the New World in the fifteenth century with the Second Voyage of Christopher Columbus, and subsequently spread into Mexico. They first reached what is now the United States in the late seventeenth century. Donkeys arrived in large numbers in the western United States during the gold rushes of the nineteenth century, as pack animals and for use in mines and ore-grinding mills. From about 1785, some large donkeys were imported from Europe to the eastern part of the continent.
On 6 February 2012, Vladimir Zhirinovsky, the former far-right populist leader of the nationalist Liberal Democratic Party of Russia, released a 30-second election video on the Internet that featured him on a sleigh which was harnessed with a black donkey. Zhirinovsky later claimed he owned the animal and that the animal was named Proshka, after Mikhail Prokhorov, another candidate in the 2012 Russian presidential election. The video was named "Troika" at the official site of the LDPR, but was distributed on YouTube under the title: "Zhirinovsky beats donkey!".
The Miranda donkey, Portuguese: Burro de Miranda, is an autochthonous donkey breed from the Terra de Miranda region of northeast Portugal.
The Burro da Ilha Graciosa or Burro Anão da Graciosa is a breed of small domestic donkey endemic to the island of Graciosa, in the North Atlantic archipelago of the Azores, which are an autonomous region of Portugal. It is critically endangered, but is not officially recognised or reported to the DAD-IS database of the FAO. Efforts are being made to obtain official recognition and protection of the breed.
John Lazarus (1845–1925) was a Christian missionary to India who rendered the Tirukkural into English. He revised the work of his predecessor William Henry Drew, who had already translated the first 63 chapters of the Tirukkural, and translated the remaining portion of the Kural text.
Walter Curtis Imrie Jr. was an American radio personality, film-maker, sportsman, animal breeder, and candidate for elected political office. He was particularly noted for his role as an organizer of the pack burro races in small mining towns in the state of Colorado. He also was a competitor in the pack burro races for more than 40 years and won three world championships in the sport.
