Dosimeter

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Radiation dosimeter in Pripyat Prypjat dose rate meter.jpg
Radiation dosimeter in Pripyat

A radiation dosimeter is a device that measures dose uptake of external ionizing radiation. It is worn by the person being monitored when used as a personal dosimeter, and is a record of the radiation dose received. Modern electronic personal dosimeters can give a continuous readout of cumulative dose and current dose rate, and can warn the wearer with an audible alarm when a specified dose rate or a cumulative dose is exceeded. Other dosimeters, such as thermoluminescent or film types, require processing after use to reveal the cumulative dose received, and cannot give a current indication of dose while being worn.

Contents

Personal dosimeters

Example of "whole body" dosimeter positioning CNX Chem 21 06 Exposure1.png
Example of "whole body" dosimeter positioning

The personal ionising radiation dosimeter is of fundamental importance in the disciplines of radiation dosimetry and radiation health physics and is primarily used to estimate the radiation dose deposited in an individual wearing the device.

Ionising radiation damage to the human body is cumulative, and is related to the total dose received, for which the SI unit is the sievert. Radiographers, nuclear power plant workers, doctors using radiotherapy, HAZMAT workers, and other people in situations that involve handling radionuclides are often required to wear dosimeters so a record of occupational exposure can be made. Such devices are known as "legal dosimeters" if they have been approved for use in recording personnel dose for regulatory purposes.

Dosimeters are typically worn on the outside of clothing, a "whole body" dosimeter is worn on the chest or torso to represent dose to the whole body. This location monitors exposure of most vital organs and represents the bulk of body mass. Additional dosimeters can be worn to assess dose to extremities or in radiation fields that vary considerably depending on orientation of the body to the source.

Electronic personal dosimeters

View of readout on an electronic personal dosimeter. The clip is used to attach it to the wearer's clothing. Crocus-p1020509.jpg
View of readout on an electronic personal dosimeter. The clip is used to attach it to the wearer's clothing.

The electronic personal dosimeter, the most commonly used type, is an electronic device that has a number of sophisticated functions, such as continual monitoring which allows alarm warnings at preset levels and live readout of dose accumulated. These are especially useful in high dose areas where residence time of the wearer is limited due to dose constraints. The dosimeter can be reset, usually after taking a reading for record purposes, and thereby re-used multiple times.

MOSFET dosimeter

Metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor dosimeters [1] are now used as clinical dosimeters for radiotherapy radiation beams. The main advantages of MOSFET devices are:

1. The MOSFET dosimeter is direct reading with a very thin active area (less than 2μm [ clarification needed ]).

2. The physical size of the MOSFET when packaged is less than 4 mm.

3. The post radiation signal is permanently stored and is dose rate independent.

Gate oxide of MOSFET which is conventionally silicon dioxide is an active sensing material in MOSFET dosimeters. Radiation creates defects (acts like electron-hole pairs) in oxide, which in turn affects the threshold voltage of the MOSFET. This change in threshold voltage is proportional to radiation dose. Alternate high-k gate dielectrics like hafnium dioxide [2] and aluminum oxides are also proposed as a radiation dosimeters.

PIN dosimeters

PIN diodes are often used by military personnel for measuring radiation dosage.

Scintillation counter

A scintillation counter detects ionizing radiation by measuring the light emitted from a scintillator, giving a measurement of radiation levels almost instantly. Like thermoluminescent crystals, scintillation materials begin to glow when exposed to radiation. Unlike thermoluminescent crystals, which store absorbed radiation to measure accumulated doses over a period of time, scintillation materials release light immediately, and do not need to be heated. [3]

Thermoluminescent dosimeter

A thermoluminescent dosimeter measures ionizing radiation exposure by measuring the intensity of light emitted from a Dy or B doped crystal in the detector when heated. The intensity of light emitted is dependent upon the radiation exposure. These were once sold surplus and one format once used by submariners and nuclear workers resembled a dark green wristwatch containing the active components and a highly sensitive IR wire ended diode mounted to the doped LiF2 glass chip that when the assembly is precisely heated (hence thermoluminescent) emits the stored radiation as narrow band infrared light until it is depleted [4] The main advantage is that the chip records dosage passively until exposed to light or heat so even a used sample kept in darkness can provide valuable scientific data. [5]

Legacy types of dosimeters

Film badge dosimeter

Film badge dosimeters are for one-time use only. The level of radiation absorption is indicated by a change to the film emulsion, which is shown when the film is developed. They are now mostly superseded by electronic personal dosimeters and thermoluminescent dosimeters.

Quartz fiber dosimeter

These use the property of a quartz fiber to measure the static electricity held on the fiber. Before use by the wearer a dosimeter is charged to a high voltage, causing the fiber to deflect due to electrostatic repulsion. As the gas in the dosimeter chamber becomes ionized by radiation the charge leaks away, causing the fiber to straighten and thereby indicate the amount of dose received against a graduated scale, which is viewed by a small in-built microscope. [6] They are only used for short durations, such as a day or a shift, as they can suffer from charge leakage, which gives a false high reading. However they are immune to EMP so were used during the Cold War as a failsafe method of determining radiation exposure.

They are now largely superseded by electronic personal dosimeters for short term monitoring.

Geiger tube dosimeter

These use a conventional Geiger-Muller tube, typically a ZP1301 or similar energy-compensated tube, requiring between 600 and 700V and pulse detection components. The display on most is a bubble or miniature LCD type with 4 digits and a discrete counter integrated chip such as 74C925/6.[ citation needed ] LED units usually have a button to turn the display on and off for longer battery life, and an infrared emitter for count verification and calibration. The voltage is derived from a separate pinned or wire-ended module that often uses a unijunction transistor driving a small step-up coil and multiplier stage. While expensive, it is reliable over time and especially in high-radiation environments, sharing this trait with tunnel diodes, though the encapsulants, inductors and capacitors have been known to break down internally over time.[ citation needed ] These have the disadvantage that the stored dose in becquerels or microsieverts is volatile and vanishes if the power supply is disconnected, though there can be a low-leakage capacitor to preserve the memory for short periods without a battery. Because of this, most units use long-life batteries and high-quality contacts. Recently-designed units log dose over time to non-volatile memory, such as a 24C256 chip so it may be read out via a serial port.

Dosimetry dose quantities

External radiation dose quantities used in radiological protection, based on International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements report 57 Dose quantities and units.png
External radiation dose quantities used in radiological protection, based on International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements report 57

The operational quantity for personal dosimetry is the personal dose equivalent, which is defined by the International Commission on Radiological Protection as the dose equivalent in soft tissue at an appropriate depth, below a specified point on the human body. The specified point is usually given by the position where the individual’s dosimeter is worn. [7]

Instrument and dosimeter response

This is an actual reading obtained from such as an ambient dose gamma monitor, or a personal dosimeter. The dosimeter is calibrated in a known radiation field to ensure display of accurate operational quantities and allow a relationship to known health effect. The personal dose equivalent is used to assess dose uptake, and allow regulatory limits to be met. It is the figure usually entered into the records of external dose for occupational radiation workers.

The dosimeter plays an important role within the international radiation protection system developed by the International Commission on Radiological Protection and the International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements. This is shown in the accompanying diagram.

Dosimeter calibration

The "slab" phantom is used to represent the human torso for calibration of whole body dosimeters. This replicates the radiation scattering and absorption effects of the human torso. The International Atomic Energy Agency states "The slab phantom is 300 mm × 300 mm × 150 mm depth to represent the human torso". [8]

Ionizing radiation related quantities
QuantityUnitSymbolDerivationYear SI equivalent
Activity (A) becquerel Bqs−11974SI unit
curie Ci3.7×1010 s−119533.7×1010 Bq
rutherford Rd106 s−119461000000 Bq
Exposure (X) coulomb per kilogram C/kgC⋅kg−1 of air1974SI unit
röntgen R esu / 0.001293 g of air19282.58×10−4 C/kg
Absorbed dose (D) gray Gy J⋅kg−11974SI unit
erg per gramerg/gerg⋅g−119501.0×10−4 Gy
rad rad100 erg⋅g−119530.010 Gy
Equivalent dose (H) sievert SvJ⋅kg−1 × WR 1977SI unit
röntgen equivalent man rem100 erg⋅g−1 × WR 19710.010 Sv
Effective dose (E) sievert SvJ⋅kg−1 × WR × WT 1977SI unit
röntgen equivalent man rem100 erg⋅g−1 × WR × WT 19710.010 Sv

Process irradiation verification

Manufacturing processes that treat products with ionizing radiation, such as food irradiation, use dosimeters to calibrate doses deposited in the matter being irradiated. These usually must have a greater dose range than personal dosimeters, and doses are normally measured in the unit of absorbed dose: the gray (Gy). The dosimeter is located on or adjacent to the items being irradiated during the process as a validation of dose levels received.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Geiger counter</span> Instrument used for measuring ionizing radiation

A Geiger counter is an electronic instrument used for detecting and measuring ionizing radiation. It is widely used in applications such as radiation dosimetry, radiological protection, experimental physics and the nuclear industry.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sievert</span> SI unit of equivalent dose of ionizing radiation

The sievert is a unit in the International System of Units (SI) intended to represent the stochastic health risk of ionizing radiation, which is defined as the probability of causing radiation-induced cancer and genetic damage. The sievert is important in dosimetry and radiation protection. It is named after Rolf Maximilian Sievert, a Swedish medical physicist renowned for work on radiation dose measurement and research into the biological effects of radiation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ionizing radiation</span> Harmful high-frequency radiation

Ionizing radiation, including nuclear radiation, consists of subatomic particles or electromagnetic waves that have sufficient energy to ionize atoms or molecules by detaching electrons from them. Some particles can travel up to 99% of the speed of light, and the electromagnetic waves are on the high-energy portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.

The gray is the unit of ionizing radiation dose in the International System of Units (SI), defined as the absorption of one joule of radiation energy per kilogram of matter.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dosimetry</span> Measurement of absorbed ionizing radiation

Radiation dosimetry in the fields of health physics and radiation protection is the measurement, calculation and assessment of the ionizing radiation dose absorbed by an object, usually the human body. This applies both internally, due to ingested or inhaled radioactive substances, or externally due to irradiation by sources of radiation.

Radiation protection, also known as radiological protection, is defined by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) as "The protection of people from harmful effects of exposure to ionizing radiation, and the means for achieving this". Exposure can be from a source of radiation external to the human body or due to internal irradiation caused by the ingestion of radioactive contamination.

Equivalent dose is a dose quantity H representing the stochastic health effects of low levels of ionizing radiation on the human body which represents the probability of radiation-induced cancer and genetic damage. It is derived from the physical quantity absorbed dose, but also takes into account the biological effectiveness of the radiation, which is dependent on the radiation type and energy. In the SI system of units, the unit of measure is the sievert (Sv).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Health physics</span> Branch of physics focused on radiation protection

Health physics, also referred to as the science of radiation protection, is the profession devoted to protecting people and their environment from potential radiation hazards, while making it possible to enjoy the beneficial uses of radiation. Health physicists normally require a four-year bachelor’s degree and qualifying experience that demonstrates a professional knowledge of the theory and application of radiation protection principles and closely related sciences. Health physicists principally work at facilities where radionuclides or other sources of ionizing radiation are used or produced; these include research, industry, education, medical facilities, nuclear power, military, environmental protection, enforcement of government regulations, and decontamination and decommissioning—the combination of education and experience for health physicists depends on the specific field in which the health physicist is engaged.

Absorbed dose is a dose quantity which is the measure of the energy deposited in matter by ionizing radiation per unit mass. Absorbed dose is used in the calculation of dose uptake in living tissue in both radiation protection, and radiology. It is also used to directly compare the effect of radiation on inanimate matter such as in radiation hardening.

The ionization chamber is the simplest type of gaseous ionisation detector, and is widely used for the detection and measurement of many types of ionizing radiation, including X-rays, gamma rays, alpha particles and beta particles. Conventionally, the term "ionization chamber" refers exclusively to those detectors which collect all the charges created by direct ionization within the gas through the application of an electric field. It uses the discrete charges created by each interaction between the incident radiation and the gas to produce an output in the form of a small direct current. This means individual ionising events cannot be measured, so the energy of different types of radiation cannot be differentiated, but it gives a very good measurement of overall ionising effect.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Film badge dosimeter</span> Device using photographic film to measure radiation exposure

A film badge dosimeter or film badge is a personal dosimeter used for monitoring cumulative radiation dose due to ionizing radiation.

Committed dose equivalent and Committed effective dose equivalent are dose quantities used in the United States system of radiological protection for irradiation due to an internal source.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Radiation monitoring</span> Measurement of radiation doses or contamination

Radiation monitoring involves the measurement of radiation dose or radionuclide contamination for reasons related to the assessment or control of exposure to radiation or radioactive substances, and the interpretation of the results.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Quartz fiber dosimeter</span> Type of radiation dosimeter

A quartz fiber dosimeter, sometimes called a self indicating pocket dosimeter (SIPD) or self reading pocket dosimeter (SRPD) or quartz fibre electrometer (QFE), is a type of radiation dosimeter, a pen-like device that measures the cumulative dose of ionizing radiation received by the device, usually over one work period. It is clipped to a person's clothing, normally a breast pocket for whole body exposure, to measure the user's exposure to radiation.

The Matroshka experiments on the International Space Station (ISS) use a mannequin that has been used to study cosmic radiation dose types and rates that relate to the health of space travellers on long duration missions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Roentgen (unit)</span> Measurement of radiation exposure

The roentgen or röntgen is a legacy unit of measurement for the exposure of X-rays and gamma rays, and is defined as the electric charge freed by such radiation in a specified volume of air divided by the mass of that air . In 1928, it was adopted as the first international measurement quantity for ionizing radiation to be defined for radiation protection, as it was then the most easily replicated method of measuring air ionization by using ion chambers. It is named after the German physicist Wilhelm Röntgen, who discovered X-rays and was awarded the first Nobel Prize in Physics for the discovery.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Thermoluminescent dosimeter</span> Type of radiation dosimeter

A thermoluminescent dosimeter, or TLD, is a type of radiation dosimeter, consisting of a piece of a thermoluminescent crystalline material inside a radiolucent package.

The committed dose in radiological protection is a measure of the stochastic health risk due to an intake of radioactive material into the human body. Stochastic in this context is defined as the probability of cancer induction and genetic damage, due to low levels of radiation. The SI unit of measure is the sievert.

Gel dosimeters, also called Fricke gel dosimeters, are manufactured from radiation sensitive chemicals that, upon irradiation with ionising radiation, undergo a fundamental change in their properties as a function of the absorbed radiation dose.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Electronic personal dosimeter</span>

The electronic personal dosimeter (EPD) is a modern electronic dosimeter for estimating uptake of ionising radiation dose of the individual wearing it for radiation protection purposes. The electronic personal dosimeter has the advantages over older types that it has a number of sophisticated functions, such as continuous monitoring which allows alarm warnings at preset levels and live readout of dose accumulated. It can be reset to zero after use, and most models allow near field electronic communications for automatic reading and resetting.

References

  1. ↑ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-04-10. Retrieved 2015-04-04.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  2. ↑ Senthil Srinivasan, V.S.; Pandya, Arun (2011). "Dosimetry aspects of hafnium oxide metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) capacitor". Thin Solid Films. 520 (1): 574–577. Bibcode:2011TSF...520..574S. doi:10.1016/j.tsf.2011.07.010.
  3. ↑ Archambault, Louis et al. “Toward a real-time in vivo dosimetry system using plastic scintillation detectors.” International journal of radiation oncology, biology, physics vol. 78,1 (2010): 280-7. doi:10.1016/j.ijrobp.2009.11.025. (https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2889037/)
  4. ↑ Worton, R. G.; Holloway, A. F. (1966). "Lithium Fluoride Thermoluminescence Dosimetry". Radiology. 87 (5): 938–943. doi:10.1148/87.5.938. PMID   5924913.
  5. ↑ "Method of preparing a thermoluminescent phosphor".
  6. ↑ Frame, Paul (2007-07-25). "Pocket Chambers and Pocket Dosimeters". ORAU Museum of Radiation and Radioactivity. Oak Ridge Associated Universities. Retrieved 2021-10-07.
  7. ↑ International Commission on Radiological Protection pub 103 glossary.
  8. ↑ International Atomic Energy Agency safety report 16
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