Euratom

Last updated

European Atomic Energy Community
  • Европейска общност за атомна енергия (Bulgarian)
  • Europska zajednica za atomsku energiju (Croatian)
  • Evropské společenství pro atomovou energii (Czech)
  • Europæiske Atomenergifællesskab (Danish)
  • Europese Atoomenergie Gemeenschap (Dutch)
  • Euroopa Aatomienergiaühendus (Estonian)
  • Euroopan atomienergiayhteisö (Finnish)
  • Communauté européenne de l'énergie atomique (French)
  • Europäische Atomgemeinschaft (German)
  • Ευρωπαϊκή Κοινότητα Ατομικής Ενέργειας (Greek)
  • Európai Atomenergia Közösség (Hungarian)
  • Comhphobal Eorpach um Fhuinneamh Adamhach (Irish)
  • Comunità europea dell'energia atomica (Italian)
  • Eiropas Atomenerģijas kopiena (Latvian)
  • Europos atominės energetikos bendrija (Lithuanian)
  • Komunità Ewropea tal-Enerġija Atomika (Maltese)
  • Europejska Wspólnota Energii Atomowej (Polish)
  • Comunidade Europeia da Energia Atómica (Portuguese)
  • Comunitatea Europeană a Energiei Atomice (Romanian)
  • Európske spoločenstvo pre atómovú energiu (Slovak)
  • Evropska skupnost za jedrsko energijo (Slovene)
  • Comunidad Europea de la Energía Atómica (Spanish)
  • Europeiska atomenergigemenskapen (Swedish)
Euratom.svg
  Member states
  Participating associated states
Administrative body European Commission
Official languages 24 languages
Type International organisation
Members EU member states
Associated states:
Switzerland
United Kingdom
Establishment1958
1 January 1958
1 July 1967

The European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC or Euratom) is an international organisation established by the Euratom Treaty on 25 March 1957 with the original purpose of creating a specialist market for nuclear power in Europe, by developing nuclear energy and distributing it to its member states while selling the surplus to non-member states. However, over the years its scope has been considerably increased to cover a large variety of areas associated with nuclear power and ionising radiation as diverse as safeguarding of nuclear materials, radiation protection and construction of the International Fusion Reactor ITER. [1]

Contents

It is legally distinct from the European Union (EU) although it has the same membership, and is governed by many of the EU's institutions; but it is the only remaining community organisation that is independent of the EU and therefore outside the regulatory control of the European Parliament. Since 2014, Switzerland has also participated in Euratom programmes as an associated state. [2]

The United Kingdom ceased to be a full member of the organisation on 31 January 2020. [3] [4] However, under the terms of the UK–EU Trade and Cooperation Agreement, the United Kingdom participates in Euratom as an associated state following the end of the transition period on 31 December 2020. [5]

History

1 April 1957, Konrad Adenauer, Walter Hallstein and Antonio Segni, signing the European customs union and Euratom in Rome, Italy Bundesarchiv Bild 183-45653-0001, Rom, Vertrage uber Zollpakt und Eurotom unterzeichnet.jpg
1 April 1957, Konrad Adenauer, Walter Hallstein and Antonio Segni, signing the European customs union and Euratom in Rome, Italy

The driving force behind the creation of Euratom was France's desire to develop nuclear energy and nuclear weapons without having to rely on the United States and/or the United Kingdom. [6] The costs of nuclear development were also large, motivating France to share the costs with the other members of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). [6]

During the negotiations to create Euratom, the United States and the United Kingdom sought to gain influence over nuclear development in Europe. [6] The US and the UK created the European Nuclear Energy Agency (ENEA) as a way to limit the value of Euratom and gain influence over the spread of nuclear technology. [6] The Soviet Union launched a propaganda campaign against Euratom, as it sought to stoke fears among Europeans that the organization would enable West Germany to develop nuclear weapons. [6]

The Common Assembly proposed extending the powers of the ECSC to cover other sources of energy. However, Jean Monnet, ECSC architect and President, wanted a separate community to cover nuclear power. Louis Armand was put in charge of a study into the prospects of nuclear energy use in Europe; his report concluded that further nuclear development was needed to fill the deficit left by the exhaustion of coal deposits and to reduce dependence on oil producers. However, the Benelux states and Germany were also keen on creating a general single market, although it was opposed by France due to its protectionism, and Jean Monnet thought it too large and difficult a task. In the end, Monnet proposed the creation of separate atomic energy and economic communities to reconcile both groups. [7]

The Intergovernmental Conference on the Common Market and Euratom at the Château of Val-Duchesse in 1956 drew up the essentials of the new treaties. Euratom would foster cooperation in the nuclear field, at the time a very popular area, and would, along with the EEC, share the Common Assembly and Court of Justice of the ECSC, but not its executives. Euratom would have its own Council and Commission, with fewer powers than the High Authority of the European Coal and Steel Community. On 25 March 1957, the Treaties of Rome (the Euratom Treaty and the EEC Treaty) were signed by the six ECSC members and on 1 January 1958 they came into force. [6] [8] [9] [10]

To save on resources, these separate executives created by the Rome Treaties were merged in 1965 by the Merger Treaty. The institutions of the EEC would take over responsibilities for the running of the ECSC and Euratom, with all three then becoming known as the European Communities even if each legally existed separately. In 1993, the Maastricht Treaty created the European Union, which absorbed the Communities into the European Community pillar, yet Euratom still maintained a distinct legal personality.

The European Constitution was intended to consolidate all previous treaties and increase democratic accountability in them. The Euratom treaty had not been amended as the other treaties had, so the European Parliament had been granted few powers over it. However, the reason it had gone unamended was the same reason the Constitution left it to remain separate from the rest of the EU: anti-nuclear sentiment among the European electorate, which may unnecessarily turn voters against the treaty. [11] [12] [13] The Euratom treaty thus remains in force relatively unamended from its original signing.

EU evolution timeline

This overall timeline includes the establishment and development of Euratom, and shows that currently, it is the only former EC body that has not been incorporated into the EU.

Since the end of World War II, sovereign European countries have entered into treaties and thereby co-operated and harmonised policies (or pooled sovereignty) in an increasing number of areas, in the European integration project or the construction of Europe (French: la construction européenne). The following timeline outlines the legal inception of the European Union (EU)—the principal framework for this unification. The EU inherited many of its present responsibilities from the European Communities (EC), which were founded in the 1950s in the spirit of the Schuman Declaration.

Legend:
  S: signing
  F: entry into force
  T: termination
  E: expiry
    de facto supersession
  Rel. w/ EC/EU framework:
   de facto inside
   outside		          Flag of Europe.svg European Union (EU)[ Cont. ]  
Flag of Europe.svg European Communities (EC) (Pillar I)
European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC or Euratom)[ Cont. ]      
Flag of the European Coal and Steel Community 6 Star Version.svg / Flag of the European Coal and Steel Community 9 Star Version.svg / Flag of the European Coal and Steel Community 10 Star Version.svg / Flag of the European Coal and Steel Community 12 Star Version.svg European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) 
(Distr. of competences)
   European Economic Community (EEC)  
       Schengen Rules European Community (EC)
'TREVI' Justice and Home Affairs (JHA, pillar II)  
  Flag of Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe.svg / Flag of NATO.svg North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO)[Cont.] Police and Judicial Co-operation in Criminal Matters (PJCC, pillar II)
Flag of France.svg Flag of the United Kingdom.svg
Anglo-French alliance 		[Defence arm handed to NATO] European Political Co-operation  (EPC)  Common Foreign and Security Policy
(CFSP, pillar III)
Flag of the Western Union.svg Western Union (WU) Flag of the Western European Union (1993-1995).svg / Flag of the Western European Union.svg Western European Union (WEU)[Tasks defined following the WEU's 1984 reactivation handed to the EU]
   
[Social, cultural tasks handed to CoE][Cont.]        
    Flag of Europe.svg Council of Europe (CoE)
Entente Cordiale
S: 8 April 1904
Dunkirk Treaty [lower-roman 1]
S: 4 March 1947
F: 8 September 1947
E: 8 September 1997
Brussels Treaty [lower-roman 1]
S: 17 March 1948
F: 25 August 1948
T: 30 June 2011
London and Washington treaties [lower-roman 1]
S: 5 May/4 April 1949
F: 3 August/24 August 1949
Paris treaties: ECSC and EDC [lower-roman 2]
S: 18 April 1951/27 May 1952
F: 23 July 1952/—
E: 23 July 2002/—
Rome treaties: EEC and EAEC
S: 25 March 1957
F: 1 January 1958
WEU-CoE agreement [lower-roman 1]
S: 21 October 1959
F: 1 January 1960
Brussels (Merger) Treaty [lower-roman 3]
S: 8 April 1965
F: 1 July 1967
Davignon report
S: 27 October 1970
European Council conclusions
S: 2 December 1975
Single European Act (SEA)
S: 17/28 February 1986
F: 1 July 1987
Schengen Treaty and Convention
S: 14 June 1985/19 June 1990
F: 26 March 1995
Maastricht Treaty [lower-roman 4] [lower-roman 5]
S: 7 February 1992
F: 1 November 1993
Amsterdam Treaty
S: 2 October 1997
F: 1 May 1999
Nice Treaty
S: 26 February 2001
F: 1 February 2003
Lisbon Treaty [lower-roman 6]
S: 13 December 2007
F: 1 December 2009


  1. 1 2 3 4 5 Although not EU treaties per se, these treaties affected the development of the EU defence arm, a main part of the CFSP. The Franco-British alliance established by the Dunkirk Treaty was de facto superseded by WU. The CFSP pillar was bolstered by some of the security structures that had been established within the remit of the 1955 Modified Brussels Treaty (MBT). The Brussels Treaty was terminated in 2011, consequently dissolving the WEU, as the mutual defence clause that the Lisbon Treaty provided for EU was considered to render the WEU superfluous. The EU thus de facto superseded the WEU.
  2. ↑ Plans to establish a European Political Community (EPC) were shelved following the French failure to ratify the Treaty establishing the European Defence Community (EDC). The EPC would have combined the ECSC and the EDC.
  3. ↑ The European Communities obtained common institutions and a shared legal personality (i.e. ability to e.g. sign treaties in their own right).
  4. ↑ The treaties of Maastricht and Rome form the EU's legal basis, and are also referred to as the Treaty on European Union (TEU) and the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU), respectively. They are amended by secondary treaties.
  5. ↑ Between the EU's founding in 1993 and consolidation in 2009, the union consisted of three pillars, the first of which were the European Communities. The other two pillars consisted of additional areas of cooperation that had been added to the EU's remit.
  6. ↑ The consolidation meant that the EU inherited the European Communities' legal personality and that the pillar system was abolished, resulting in the EU framework as such covering all policy areas. Executive/legislative power in each area was instead determined by a distribution of competencies between EU institutions and member states. This distribution, as well as treaty provisions for policy areas in which unanimity is required and qualified majority voting is possible, reflects the depth of EU integration as well as the EU's partly supranational and partly intergovernmental nature.

Cooperation

Withdrawal of the United Kingdom

The United Kingdom announced its intention to withdraw from the EAEC on 26 January 2017, following on from its decision to withdraw from the European Union. [14] [25] [26] [27] Formal notice to withdraw from the EAEC was provided in March 2017, within the Article 50 notification letter, where the withdrawal was made explicit. [28] Withdrawal only became effective following negotiations on the terms of the exit, which lasted two years and ten months.

A report by the House of Commons Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy Committee, published in May 2017, questioned the legal necessity of leaving Euratom and called for a temporary extension of membership to allow time for new arrangements to be made. [29]

In June 2017, the European Commission's negotiations task force published a Position paper transmitted to EU27 on nuclear materials and safeguard equipment (Euratom), titled "Essential Principles on nuclear materials and safeguard equipment". [30] The following month, a briefing paper from the House of Commons Library assessed the implications of leaving Euratom. [31]

In 2017, an article in The Independent questioned the availability of nuclear fuel to the UK after 2019 if the UK were to withdraw, and the need for new treaties relating to the transportation of nuclear materials. [32] A 2017 article in the New Scientist stated that radioisotope supply for cancer treatments would also need to be considered in new treaties. [33]

UK politicians speculated that the UK could stay in Euratom. In 2017, some argued that this would require – beyond the consent of the EU27 – amendment or revocation of the Article 50 letter of March 2017. [34]

The Nuclear Safeguards Act 2018 , making provision for safeguards after withdrawal from Euratom, received royal assent on 26 June 2018. [35]

The UK-EU Trade and Cooperation Agreement, outlining the UK's relationship with the European Union from 1 January 2021, makes provision for the United Kingdom's participation "as an associated country of all parts of the Euratom programme". [5]

Achievements

In the history of European regulation, Article 37 of the Euratom Treaty represents pioneering legislation concerning binding transfrontier obligations with respect to environmental impact and protection of humans. [36] [ clarification needed ]

President

The five-member Commission was led by only three presidents while it had independent executives (1958–1967), all from France:[ citation needed ]

N.PortraitPresident
(Born–Died)		StateTook officeLeft officeCommissionPartyGroupElectoral mandateRefs
1 Photo Louis Armand.jpg Louis Armand
(1905–1971)		France7 January 19582 February 1959 Armand Independent None–
1 year, 26 days
2 Etienne Hirsch - 1983 (cropped).png Étienne Hirsch
(1901–1994)		France2 February 195910 January 1962 Hirsch Independent None–
3 years, 8 days
3 Portrait ministre de l'Interieur Chatenet - Archives nationales (France).png Pierre Chatenet
(1917–1997)		France10 January 19625 July 1967 Chatenet Independent None–
5 years, 176 days

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">European Coal and Steel Community</span> Regulator of coal and steel markets, 1952–67

The European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) was a European organization created after World War II to integrate Europe's coal and steel industries into a single common market based on the principle of supranationalism which would be governed by the creation of a High Authority which would be made up of appointed representatives from the member states who would not represent their national interest, but would take and make decisions in the general interests of the Community as a whole. It was formally established in 1951 by the Treaty of Paris, signed by Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany and was generally seen as the first step in the process of European integration following the end of the Second World War in Europe. The organization's subsequent enlargement of both members and duties ultimately led to the creation of the European Union.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">European Economic Community</span> Former international organisation

The European Economic Community (EEC) was a regional organisation created by the Treaty of Rome of 1957, aiming to foster economic integration among its member states. It was subsequently renamed the European Community (EC) upon becoming integrated into the first pillar of the newly formed European Union in 1993. In the popular language, however, the singular European Community was sometimes inaccurately used in the wider sense of the plural European Communities, in spite of the latter designation covering all the three constituent entities of the first pillar.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Western European Union</span> 1954–2011 international organisation and military alliance

The Western European Union was the international organisation and military alliance that succeeded the Western Union (WU) after the 1954 amendment of the 1948 Treaty of Brussels. The WEU implemented the Modified Brussels Treaty. During the Cold War, the Western Bloc included the WEU member-states, plus the United States and Canada, as part of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Treaty of Rome</span> 1957 founding treaty of the European Economic Community

The Treaty of Rome, or EEC Treaty, brought about the creation of the European Economic Community (EEC), the best known of the European Communities (EC). The treaty was signed on 25 March 1957 by Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany, and it came into force on 1 January 1958. Originally the "Treaty establishing the European Economic Community", and now continuing under the name "Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union", it remains one of the two most important treaties in what is now the European Union (EU).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Treaty of Paris (1951)</span> 1951 treaty establishing the European Coal and Steel Community

The Treaty of Paris was signed on 18 April 1951 between France, Italy, West Germany, Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands, establishing the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), which subsequently became part of the European Union. The treaty came into force on 23 July 1952 and expired on 23 July 2002, exactly fifty years after it came into effect.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">European Communities</span> International organizations governed by the same set of institutions

The European Communities (EC) were three international organizations that were governed by the same set of institutions. These were the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), the European Atomic Energy Community, and the European Economic Community (EEC), the last of which was renamed the European Community (EC) in 1993 by the Maastricht Treaty establishing the European Union. The European Union was established at that time more as a concept rather than an entity, while the Communities remained the actual subjects of international law impersonating the rather abstract Union, becoming at the same time its first pillar. In the popular language, however, the singular European Community was sometimes inaccurately used interchangeably with the plural phrase, in the sense of referring to all three entities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">European Political Community (1952)</span> Former proposed political organization

An entity to be named the European Political Community (EPC) was proposed in 1952 as a combination of the existing European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) and the proposed European Defence Community (EDC). A draft EPC treaty, as drawn up by the ECSC assembly, would have seen a directly elected assembly, a senate appointed by national parliaments and a supranational executive accountable to the parliament.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Special territories of members of the European Economic Area</span>

The special territories of members of the European Economic Area (EEA) are the 32 special territories of EU member states and EFTA member states which, for historical, geographical, or political reasons, enjoy special status within or outside the European Union and the European Free Trade Association.

The Merger Treaty, also known as the Treaty of Brussels, was a European treaty which unified the executive institutions of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) and the European Economic Community (EEC). The treaty was signed in Brussels on 8 April 1965 and came into force on 1 July 1967. It set out that the Commission of the European Communities should replace the High Authority of the ECSC, the Commission of the EEC and the Commission of Euratom, and that the Council of the European Communities should replace the Special Council of Ministers of the ECSC, the Council of the EEC and the Council of Euratom. Although each Community remained legally independent, they shared common institutions and were together known as the European Communities. This treaty is regarded by some as the real beginning of the modern European Union.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Three pillars of the European Union</span> Legal structure of the European Union from 1993 to 2009

Between 1993 and 2009, the European Union (EU) legally comprised three pillars. This structure was introduced with the Treaty of Maastricht on 1 November 1993, and was eventually abandoned on 1 December 2009 upon the entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon, when the EU obtained a consolidated legal personality.

  1. The European Communities pillar handled economic, social and environmental policies. It comprised the European Community (EC), the European Coal and Steel Community, and the European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM).
  2. The Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) pillar took care of foreign policy and military matters.
  3. Police and Judicial Co-operation in Criminal Matters (PJCCM) brought together co-operation in the fight against crime. This pillar was originally named Justice and Home Affairs (JHA)

The Euratom Treaty, officially the Treaty establishing the European Atomic Energy Community, established the European Atomic Energy Community. It was signed on 25 March 1957 at the same time as the Treaty establishing the European Economic Community.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Treaty of Brussels</span> 1948 Western European defence treaty

The Treaty of Brussels, also referred to as the Brussels Pact, was the founding treaty of the Western Union (WU) between 1948 and 1954, when it was amended as the Modified Brussels Treaty (MTB) and served as the founding treaty of the Western European Union (WEU) until its termination in 2010. The treaty provided for the organisation of military, economic, social and cultural cooperation among member states as well as a mutual defence clause.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of European integration (1948–1957)</span>

The year 1948 marked the beginning of the institutionalised modern European integration. With the start of the Cold War, the Treaty of Brussels was signed in 1948 establishing the Western Union (WU) as the first organisation. In the same year, the International Authority for the Ruhr and the Organization for European Economic Co-operation, the predecessor of the OECD, were also founded, followed in 1949 by the Council of Europe, and in 1951 by the European Coal and Steel Community, with the ensuing moves to create further communities leading to the Treaty of Rome (1957).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Timeline of European Union history</span>

This is a timeline of European Union history and its previous development.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spaak Committee</span>

The Spaak Committee was an Intergovernmental Committee set up by the Foreign Ministers of the six Member States of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) as a result of the Messina Conference of 1955. The Spaak Committee started its work on 9 July 1955 and ended on 20 April 1956, when the Heads of Delegation of the six Member States of the ECSC approved the Spaak report. The committee worked on two main topics, one was the creation of a general common market and the other one was the establishment of a European Community for the peaceful use of atomic energy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Intergovernmental Conference on the Common Market and Euratom</span>

The Intergovernmental Conference on the Common Market and Euratom was held in Brussels and started on 26 June 1956 with a session in the Grand Salon of the Belgian Foreign Ministry. The negotiations went on at the Château of Val-Duchesse in Auderghem (Brussels) and would continue until March 1957. The conference was held to draft the Treaties establishing the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community. The conference built on the results of the Spaak Report of the Spaak Committee and the decision taken at the Venice Conference to prepare the plan for the establishment of a common market and the establishment of a European Community for the peaceful use of atomic energy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">High Authority of the European Coal and Steel Community</span> ECSC institution

The High Authority was the executive branch of the former European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). It was created in 1951 and disbanded in 1967 when it was merged into the European Commission.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Western Union (alliance)</span> 1948–1954 European military alliance

The Western Union (WU), also referred to as the Brussels Treaty Organisation (BTO), was the European military alliance established between France, the United Kingdom (UK) and the three Benelux countries in September 1948 in order to implement the Treaty of Brussels signed in March the same year. Under this treaty the signatories, referred to as the five powers, agreed to collaborate in the defence field as well as in the political, economic and cultural fields.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of the Common Security and Defence Policy</span> Aspect in of history

This article outlines the history of the Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) of the European Union (EU), a part of the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement</span> Post-Brexit agreement of December 2020

The EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement (TCA) is a free trade agreement signed on 30 December 2020, between the European Union (EU), the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom), and the United Kingdom (UK). It provisionally applied from 1 January 2021, when the Brexit transition period ended, before formally entering into force on 1 May 2021, after the ratification processes on both sides were completed: the UK Parliament ratified on 30 December 2020; the European Parliament and the Council of the European Union ratified in late April 2021.

References

  1. ↑ Energy, Fusion For. "Fusion For Energy - Bringing the power of the sun to earth". fusionforenergy.europa.eu.
  2. 1 2 2014/954/Euratom: Council Decision of 4 December 2014 approving the conclusion by the European Commission, on behalf of the European Atomic Energy Community, of the Agreement for scientific and technological cooperation between the European Union and European Atomic Energy Community and the Swiss Confederation associating the Swiss Confederation to Horizon 2020 — the Framework Programme for Research and Innovation and the Research and Training Programme of the European Atomic Energy Community complementing Horizon 2020, and regulating the Swiss Confederation's participation in the ITER activities carried out by Fusion for Energy
  3. ↑ European Union (Notification of Withdrawal) Act 2017 (c. 9) EXPLANATORY NOTES, p. 4: "The power that is provided by section 1(1) applies to withdrawal from the EU. This includes the European Atomic Energy Community (‘Euratom’), as the European Union (Amendment) Act 2008 sets out that the term “EU” includes (as the context permits or requires) Euratom (section 3(2))."
  4. ↑ Hinson, Suzanna (8 January 2020). "Commons Briefing papers CBP-8036".{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  5. 1 2 3 "Draft EU-UK Declarations" (PDF). European Commission. p. 21. Retrieved 26 December 2020.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Nieburg, H. L. (1963). "EURATOM: A Study in Coalition Politics". World Politics. 15 (4): 597–622. doi:10.2307/2009458. ISSN   1086-3338. JSTOR   2009458. S2CID   153589335.
  7. ↑ 1957–1968 Successes and crises CVCE
  8. ↑ A European Atomic Energy Community CVCE
  9. ↑ The signing of the Rome Treaties CVCE
  10. ↑ Drafting of the Rome Treaties CVCE
  11. ↑ Euratom: nuking Europe's future Greenpeace International, 9 July 2003
  12. ↑ One hundred civil society groups say abolish Euratom! Archived 23 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine Friends of the Earth Europe, 3 March 2003
  13. ↑ "Euratom Loans". www.eu-energy.com.
  14. 1 2 Alex Barker, Arthur Beesley (26 January 2017). "UK confirms plan to leave European atomic energy community". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 10 December 2022. Retrieved 27 January 2017.
  15. ↑ "Armenian president declares readiness to enhance cooperation with European Union". ARKA. 19 April 2018. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
  16. ↑ V., Knoerich (28 April 1981). "Cooperation between Euratom and Australia". Atw. Atomwirtschaft, Atomtechnik. 26 (12).
  17. ↑ Agreement between the Government of Canada and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) for cooperation in the peaceful uses of atomic energy
  18. ↑ "India, EU sign civil nuclear cooperation agreement on eve of Summit". Hindustan Times. 14 July 2020. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
  19. ↑ "Euratom signs fusion energy declaration with Japan : New Nuclear - World Nuclear News". world-nuclear-news.org.
  20. ↑ "Agreement between the Government of Kazakhstan and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) on cooperation in the sphere of peaceful use of nuclear energy | InforMEA". www.informea.org.
  21. ↑ "Agreement between RSA & European Atomic Energy Community for Co-operation on the Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy | PMG". pmg.org.za.
  22. ↑ "UKRAINE JOINS "HORIZON EUROPE" AND "EURATOM" PROGRAMS – European Educational Scientific Technological Center". 25 October 2021. Retrieved 5 March 2023.
  23. ↑ Agreement for cooperation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy between the European Atomic Energy Community and the United States of America - Agreed Minute - Declaration on non-proliferation policy
  24. ↑ Agreement for cooperation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy between the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) and the Government of the Republic of Uzbekistan
  25. ↑ Gosden, Sam Coates, Emily (21 December 2017). "Britain quits European nuclear body" – via www.thetimes.co.uk.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  26. ↑ Adam Vaughan (27 January 2017). "UK exit from EU atomic treaty under Brexit 'will delay power stations'". The Guardian. Retrieved 27 January 2017.
  27. ↑ Gibney, Elizabeth (2017). "Researchers shocked at UK's plan to exit EU nuclear agency". Nature. doi: 10.1038/nature.2017.21388 . S2CID   184656918.
  28. ↑ "Prime Minister May's letter to EU" (PDF). Government of the United Kingdom. 29 March 2017. Retrieved 1 April 2017.
  29. ↑ "Government must act urgently to end Brexit risk to nuclear industry". UK Parliament. Retrieved 8 July 2017.
  30. ↑ "Position paper transmitted to EU27 on nuclear materials and safeguard equipment (Euratom)". European Commission. 23 June 2017. Retrieved 27 June 2017.
  31. ↑ Hinson, Suzanna (7 July 2017). "Briefing Paper CBP 8036: Euratom". UK Parliament. Retrieved 8 July 2017.
  32. ↑ "Brexit will create 'an alarming mess' for UK nuclear industry, scientists warn". The Independent. 9 July 2017.
  33. ↑ "Brexiteers must not risk UK's nuclear future by leaving Euratom". The New Scientist. 12 July 2017.
  34. ↑ "Brexit: what happens to Article 50 in a U-turn on Euratom?". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 10 December 2022. Retrieved 11 July 2017.
  35. ↑ "Bill stages — Nuclear Safeguards Act 2018 — UK Parliament". parliament.uk. Parliament of the United Kingdom. Retrieved 9 July 2018.
  36. ↑ "Heuel-Fabianek, B., Kümmerle, E., Möllmann-Coers, M., Lennartz, R. (2008): The relevance of Article 37 of the Euratom Treaty for the dismantling of nuclear reactors. atw – International Journal for Nuclear Power 6/2008" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 September 2008.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.