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East Timor was occupied by Indonesia for 24 years from 1976 to 1999, a period during which many observers consider a genocide to have taken place. It was estimated by one report that the Indonesian occupation of East Timor was responsible for 180,000 deaths in the 24-year period.[2] The human rights violations of the Indonesian government resulted in a home-grown resistance movement pushing for independence. Several pro-independence organisations such as the centre-left Fretilin (and its armed wing Falintil) and the centre-right Timorese Democratic Union (UDT) joined forces in 1986 in the National Council of Maubere/Timorese Resistance, a coalition which grew over time and by 1998 included all East Timorese political parties. The 1991 Dili Massacre, which was recorded on video and was widely reported to have killed between 180 and 200 people,[3] was a turning point for the independence cause. Publicity about the atrocity stimulated the emergence of an East Timor solidarity movement in Portugal, the Philippines, Australia, and other Western countries. United States support for Indonesia ended and the U.S. military pulled out of Indonesia. Following civil unrest and protests, long-time presidentSuharto (presidency 1967–1998) fell from power in May 1998 and was replaced by B. J. Habibie.
Although Habibie was opposed to outright independence, he allowed an East Timorese referendum on special autonomy or independence on 30 August 1999. In the lead-up to and aftermath of the referendum, in which 78.5% of voters chose independence rather than special autonomy, the 1999 East Timorese crisis occurred, with lethal violence between pro-Indonesia militias and pro-independence forces. UNpeacemaking troops of the INTERFET intervened on 20 September 1999 to address the humanitarian and security crisis. The Indonesian government formally recognised the result of the referendum on 19 October 1999, after which UN peacekeeping troops of the UNTAET oversaw the transition period to independence until 2002, during which some deadly clashes continued to occur.
Australian shift in policy and letter from John Howard
Around this time Australian support for Indonesia over East Timor had been changing. Under the past Fraser and Hawke governments, there had been support for Indonesia over its rule of East Timor. Even after the Dili Massacre, when the US military pulled out in protest, Paul Keating's Government had increased military support, Keating himself was close to Suharto, and had financial dealings with Indonesian business.[4] At this time, there was an increase in East Timor itself of more overt feelings towards independence. The Australian Government's policy was also shifting, and while in the past it was one of the few countries that recognised Indonesia's control over East Timor, the Government's view at this time changed towards the possibility of some sort of autonomy. This shift in policy was initially revealed by journalists, and then formally acknowledged by the Australian Foreign minister, Alexander Downer, on 12 January 1999. Australian Prime Minister John Howard, proposed by letter to the president of Indonesia that there should be a referendum for the people of East Timor, to do with their autonomy.[5] While the letter advocated that the referendum take place over the next 10 or 20 years, Indonesian President B. J. Habibie, however, prompted by the letter, decided to have a referendum on independence immediately.[6]
Though it was noted there had been a fair amount of diplomacy between the two leaders, who generally had good relations,[7] It was said that Habibie was not happy with the letter, which prompted him to act. Also, from the Indonesian point of view, there was a reluctance to continue to support and invest money into East Timor, for an extended period of time, if in fact Timor would simply leave Indonesia at some point in the future.[8]
This was unexpected by the Australian government, who expected the letter to be rejected, and even if it was considered, expected a move to autonomy to be planned and to take place years if not decades in the future. However, the fact that it signalled a change in policy by the Australian government, obviously indicated a change in support for Indonesia over its governance of Timor.
Declaration of Referendum
On 27 January, at the urging of Habibie, the Indonesian cabinet agreed that the issue of East Timor's future should be put to a consultative process in the province. Habibie had gone ahead without the approval of the military, who were largely against the vote. While they didn't stop it, the military frustrated the process, including supporting pro integration militia. They also delayed acceptance of peacekeepers.[9]
Vote
Widespread slayings by the Indonesian military and associated militias followed the vote's announcement. It was estimated that around 1500 East Timorese were killed and more than 250,000 forcibly displaced into Indonesian territory. A huge amount of infrastructure was destroyed, estimated to be around 80%. Those that survived struggled to feed and look after themselves and their families.[10]
The United Nations organised a mission to conduct the vote. This body, UNAMET, was unarmed, and was specifically designed to set up voting centres and register voters. However, there was wide-ranging violence designed to impair the vote. Despite this, UNAMET managed to register 451,792 voters out of a population of around 800,000 in East Timor and abroad.
When the 1999 East Timorese independence referendum was held on 30 August 1999, some 98% of registered voters went to the polls. The result was markedly for a break with Indonesia, 78.5% of East Timorese chose independence from Indonesia.[11] Immediately following this, the Indonesian military being resistant to the deployment of peacekeepers, some politicians involved on both sides, including Downer and Habibie, expected that there could have been a war between Indonesia and those countries supplying the peacekeeping forces.[12][13]
Following the vote, there was a period where the Indonesian military resisted peacekeepers. However, continued diplomatic requests by John Howard, as well as covert U.S. pressure on the Indonesian military, saw Indonesia back down.[14] On 12 September, Habibie said that Indonesia would accept peacekeepers.
East Timor devolved into violence following the 4 September 1999 ballot result, with the people overwhelmingly voting for independence. The Indonesian army declared martial law on 6 September, but also aided the militias who were causing the violence and destruction.[15]
Australian Government representatives, in particular the Prime Minister and John Howard, used diplomacy to get support for peacekeepers and the peaceful governance of East Timor while it transitioned. The US military also made overtures to the Indonesian military that they needed to accept peacekeepers, and that the violence was unacceptable.[16] In particular, pro Indonesia militia caused destruction, and much infrastructure, including school and university buildings, were destroyed. This took place during the APEC summit held in Auckland, where a lot of diplomatic action amongst the attendees saw more support for protecting the East Timorese from violence.[17]
The Australian-led peacekeeping force, INTERFET arrived on 20 September 1999, though many people had been killed and much destruction had been done.[18]
The lead-up to the operation remained politically and militarily tense. The Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) re-deployed frontline combat aircraft—F/A-18s and F-111s—northward to Tindal in the Northern Territory to act as a deterrent against escalation of the conflict by the Indonesian military On at least one occasion Australian P-3C aircraft were intercepted by Indonesian aircraft, while an Indonesian submarine was also detected by Coalition surveillance within the vicinity of Dili Harbour as INTERFET forces approached. Ultimately no serious incidents occurred and the intervention was successful; however, Australia–Indonesia relations would take several years to recover.
The International Forces East Timor (INTERFET) coalition began deploying to East Timor on 20 September 1999, as a non-UN force operating in accordance with UN Resolutions. Australia led the operation and contributed 5,500 personnel and the force commander, Major General Peter Cosgrove. It was tasked with restoring peace and security, protecting and supporting UNAMET, and facilitating humanitarian assistance. The Australian Deployable Joint Force Headquarters provided overall command and control. The main Australian combat element included infantry and cavalry provided by the 3rd Brigade. Due to the nature of the operation the force deployed without its artillery and other heavy weapons and equipment; however, 105mm and 155mm guns and Leopard tanks were available and on standby in Darwin for rapid deployment if required. It was supported by the 3rd Combat Engineer Regiment, 103rd Signals Squadron, 110th Signals Squadron, and elements of the 3rd Brigade Administrative Support Battalion. Twelve Black Hawk helicopters from the 5th Aviation Regiment were also deployed. Other force level troops included military police, an intelligence company, an electronic warfare squadron, elements of an artillery locating battery, and topographic survey personnel.
Special forces played a key role, with an Australian squadron from the Special Air Service Regiment (SASR), a troop from the New Zealand Special Air Service (NZSAS) and a troop from the British Special Boat Service (SBS) forming Response Force (RESPFOR). An advance party of Gurkhas from the 2nd Battalion, The Royal Gurkha Rifles (2 RGR) and British Royal Marines Commandos from the Fleet Standby Rifle Troop (FSRT) secured the foothills and areas to the south of the city. 3rd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (3 RAR) began landing the next day at the port, along with the 2nd Cavalry Regiment equipped with ASLAV light armoured vehicles and the remainder of the Company Group from 2 RGR arrived. No. 2 Airfield Defence Squadron (2AFDS) arrived the following day to permanently secure Komoro airport replacing 2 RAR. Additional Australian forces and support personnel arrived in the days that followed as INTERFET continued to grow, as did forces from a number of other countries, in particular from New Zealand.
Most United Nations Mission in East Timor (UNAMET) personnel had already been evacuated from the region in the preceding months by the Royal Australian Air Force, although a small number had remained behind. With the withdrawal of the Indonesian forces and officials, UNAMET re-established its headquarters in Dili on 28 September and on 19 October 1999, Indonesia formally recognised the result of the independence referendum. Soon after, the United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET) was established as a peacekeeping operation which was also fully responsible for the administration of East Timor to oversee its transition to independence. With only limited forces available, Cosgrove adopted the 'oil spot' concept of dominating key areas from which the surrounding areas could be influenced and then secured, moving quickly by helicopter to keep the militia off balance. The large airfield at Baucau was secured by two platoons from 2 RAR on 22 September, who were relieved by the Philippine Army non-combat contingent known as the Philippine Humanitarian Support Mission to East Timor (PhilHSMET) three days later.
INTERFET saw a number of engagement with Militia, in which there were casualties on both sides. On 28 February 2000, INTERFET handed over command of military operations to United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET). The force suffered one battle death, a New Zealand private shot dead in an engagement with Indonesian forces/militia.
On 19 October 1999, the Indonesian Government, formally recognized the result of the vote. On 25 October, the United Nations Security Council, created UNTAET (The United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor). This was an armed peacekeeping operation that would be responsible for the administration of East Timor during its transition to an independence state. It would provide law, order and public administration during this period.
Various countries supplied personnel for UNTAET. Australia led the forces, and provided the largest contingent as well as providing the out of theatre base for operations. Portugal sent the second largest contingent securing the key central areas of the country, followed by New Zealand, who took responsibility for the southern West sector with supporting troops from Ireland, Fiji, Nepal, and Singapore. France also sent special forces who joined the ANZACs on the first day, as well as contingents from Philippines, Sweden, Brazil, Kenya, Japan, Malaysia, Singapore, South Korea, Thailand, Canada, Denmark, Italy, and the United Kingdom. The United States supported the transition authority, however didn't supply personnel, their main involvement being to underwrite contracts for replacing infrastructure that and been destroyed by the militia's and Indonesian military. The United States supplied police officers to serve with the International Police.
A National Consultative Council was established in December 1999 by UNTAET REG 1999/2, and served as a forum for East Timorese political and community leaders to advise the Transitional Administrator and discuss policy issues. The Council had eleven Timorese members and four international members. A Transitional Judicial Service Commission was also established to ensure representation of East Timorese leaders in decisions affecting the judiciary in East Timor. The Commission was made up of three Timorese representatives and two international experts. Security was initially provided by the International Force for East Timor (INTERFET) but was assumed by UNTAET Peace-Keeping Force (PKF) in February 2000. Law and order was maintained by a United Nations Civilian Police Force (CIVPOL) until an East Timorese Police Service was established in April 2000.
In July 2000, the membership of the National Consultative Council was expanded to 36 members, including one representative from each of the 13 districts of East Timor. The body was renamed the National Council. All the members were now Timorese and represented the main political parties and religious communities of East Timor. The National Council became a legislature style body and had the right to debate any future regulations issued by UNTAET. This was followed by the establishment of an executive body, the Transitional Cabinet of East Timor, was formed comprising four international members. four Timorese members, Following this, a judicial system was established with a Prosecutor General's Office and a Defender Service established. District Courts and Court of Appeal were also established. In September 2000, the Transitional Cabinet approves the establishment of an East Timor Defence Force. The force was formally established in February 2001 and the guerrilla movement FALINTIL was officially disbanded with many of its members joining the new force.
A voter registration process was completed during this period and preparations were made for elections to a Constituent Assembly that would prepare East Timor for independence expected in 2002.
Independence
In the leadup to the date for independence, there were ongoing diplomatic spats. Six naval vessels appeared in East Timorese territorial waters on Friday, May 17. The official reason give for this was to protect President Megawati Sukarnoputri who was attending the ceremony, even thousands of UN soldiers in East Timor had guaranteed her security. The East Timorese interim government conditionally granted permission for the Indonesian landing ship Teluk Sampit to enter the port of Dili, however, it had 120 armed soldiers on board instead of the previously nominated 15. Because of this, the ship therefore left the harbour again to anchored a few hundred meters off the coast.
Dili's Bishop, Nobel Peace Prize Laureate Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo on Sunday May 15 celebrated a Mass at his residence at 7 a.m. All members of the future government and the National Parliament were invited to the service. The flag of East Timor was blessed, and raised at midnight. Delegations representing countries form all over the world arrived during the day, including President Bill Clinton the United States with former, Angola's Foreign Minister João Bernardo de Miranda, Australian Prime Minister John Howard, Brazilian Foreign Minister Celso Lafer, Portuguese Prime MinisterJosé Manuel Barroso and President Jorge Sampaio and New Zealand's Prime Minister Helen Clark. UN Secretary GeneralKofi Annan landed in the capital Dili in the afternoon. All up, 300 guests of honour from 90 different countries attended the independence ceremony.
At 1pm East Timorese protested over the dispute over the demarcation line against Australia in front of the old town market. Following that, the opening of the “Expo Esperança” (“Exhibition of Hope”) took place there, with Prime Minister John Howard and East Timorese Chief Minister and Prime Minister-designate Marí Bin Amude Alkatiri. At 5:45 pm Kofi Annan opened the Parque de Paz (Peace Park) in Lecidere.
In the three weeks leading up to Independence Day, a statue of Mary, brought from Fátima in Italy by Bishop Belo, travelled around the country. East Timor, being largely a catholic state, was dedicated to the "Our Lady of Fátima" on Independence Day. The statue is now in Dili Cathedral.
At 6:00p.m., a mass was held on the grounds of the celebrations in Tasitolu. At 9:30p.m. the official ceremony for the start of independence began. Many East Timorese people in traditional costume with headdresses, swords (surik) and colourful Tais fabrics attended, and as part of the ceremony, there were folklore performances and traditional ceremonies.
The 13 districts and the island of Atauro were also presented, as was the creation legend of the good crocodile, from which the island of Timor is said to have emerged. The commemoration of the FRETILIN martyrs of the war against the Indonesian occupation was introduced with the poem Um minuto do silêncio by the national poet Francisco Borja da Costa. Hundreds of candles were carried onto the fairground and a traditional funeral song was sung. The images shown in the television broadcast included photos of well-known fallen Timorese fighters, photos of the Australian Balibo Five and the memorial site for the massacre in Aileu in 1942. The former FALINTIL fighters then moved in. At around 11:20p.m., the East Timorese Nobel Peace Prize winner José Ramos-Horta welcomed those present and the future President of East Timor Xanana Gusmão and Megawati, who were demonstratively arriving together. Other folkloric performances followed.
The formal ceremony of the transfer of power from the United Nations to the new East Timorese government began with a speech by Han Seung-soo, President of the United Nations General Assembly. This was followed by the speech by UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, which he said “Parabens, Boa Sorte, e obrigado barak! Viva Timor Leste!' ('All the best, good luck and thank you! Long live East Timor!') ended exactly at midnight. Gusmão joined Annan at the lectern and Annan explained "As Secretary-General of the United Nations, I am honoured to transfer executive authority of the United Nations Interim Administration (UNTAET) to the institutions of the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste."
The United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET),, was a United Nations mission in East Timor that aimed to solve the decades long East Timorese crisis in the area occupied by Indonesian military. UNTAET provided an interim civil administration and a peacekeeping mission in the territory of East Timor, from its establishment on 25 October 1999, until its independence on 20 May 2002, following the outcome of the East Timor Special Autonomy Referendum. The transitional administration was established by United Nations Security Council Resolution 1272 in 1999.
East Timor, officially the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania. The country comprises the eastern half of the island of Timor and the nearby islands of Atauro and Jaco. The first inhabitants are thought to be descendant of Australoid and Melanesian peoples. The Portuguese began to trade with Timor by the early 16th century and colonised it throughout the mid-century. Skirmishing with the Dutch in the region eventually resulted in an 1859 treaty for which Portugal ceded the western half of the island. Imperial Japan occupied East Timor during World War II, but Portugal resumed colonial authority after the Japanese surrender.
The International Force East Timor (INTERFET) was a multinational non-United Nations peacemaking task force, organised and led by Australia in accordance with United Nations resolutions to address the humanitarian and security crisis that took place in East Timor from 1999–2000 until the arrival of UN peacekeepers. INTERFET was commanded by an Australian military officer, Major General Peter Cosgrove.
Besi Merah Putih, meaning 'red and white iron' in Indonesian, was the official name of an East Timor, approximately 200-strong, pro-Indonesia militia (Wanra). It operated in Maubara, in the district of Liquiçá, and in the neighbourhood of the river Lóis, west of the capital Dili, under the leadership of Manuel de Sousa and with the support of Leoneto Martins, the district administrator (Bupati) of Liquiçá. It was founded on 27 December 1998 in Cai-Cassa, East Timor. The Indonesian ex-general Prabowo had direct links to Besi Merah Putih and trained members at a Kopassus base near Bogor in West Java. Tomé Diogo is also rumoured to have direct links to the BMP. The Indonesian army member is said to have led the militia directly.
Answered by Fire is a two-part television film based on the 1999 conflicts in East Timor that led to its independence in 2002. The film is based on "Dancing with the Devil: A Personal Account of Policing the East Timor Vote for Independence", which was written by David Savage, an Australian Federal Police Officer who was based in Maliana during the vote and where the fictional "Nunura" is based, who returned to East Timor to lead investigations into the crimes against humanity committed there. The book is published by Monash University Asia Institute, Melbourne David Savage was a technical and script consultant during the filming and also played a minor role.
The Armed Forces for the National Liberation of East Timor originally began as the military wing of the Fretilin party of East Timor. It was established on 20 August 1975 in response to Fretilin's political conflict with the Timorese Democratic Union (UDT).
Baucau Airport, formerly Cakung Airport, is an unattended and mostly unused airport near Baucau, East Timor. It is the largest airport in East Timor and has a much longer runway than Dili's Presidente Nicolau Lobato International Airport, long enough to handle large commercial airliners.
An independence referendum was held in East Timor on 30 August 1999, organised by United Nations Mission in East Timor. The referendum's origins lay with the request made by the President of Indonesia, B. J. Habibie, to the United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan on 27 January 1999, for the United Nations to hold a referendum, whereby East Timor would be given choice of either greater autonomy within Indonesia or independence.
The Indonesian occupation of East Timor began in December 1975 and lasted until October 1999. After centuries of Portuguese colonial rule in East Timor, the 1974 Carnation Revolution in Portugal led to the decolonisation of its former colonies, creating instability in East Timor and leaving its future uncertain. After a small-scale civil war, the pro-independence Fretilin declared victory in the capital city of Dili and declared an independent East Timor on 28 November 1975.
The 1999 East Timorese crisis began with attacks by pro-Indonesia militia groups on civilians, and expanded to general violence throughout the country, centred in the capital Dili. The violence intensified after a majority of eligible East Timorese voters voted for independence from Indonesia. Some 1,400 civilians are believed to have died. A UN-authorized force (INTERFET) consisting mainly of Australian Defence Force personnel was deployed to East Timor to establish and maintain peace.
East Timor and Indonesia established diplomatic relations in 2002. Both share the island of Timor. Indonesia invaded the former Portuguese colony in 1975 and annexed East Timor in 1976, maintaining East Timor as its 27th province until a United Nations-sponsored referendum in 1999, in which the people of East Timor chose independence. Following a United Nations interim administration, East Timor gained independence in 2002. Indonesia already had a consulate in Dili during the Portuguese colonial period, though Indonesia formalized their relations by establishing an embassy in Dili. Since October 2002, East Timor has an embassy in Jakarta and consulates in Denpasar and Kupang. Relations between the two countries are generally considered highly positive, despite various problems. Numerous agreements regulate cooperation in different areas. East Timorese are visa-free in Indonesia.
United Nations Security Council resolution 1264, adopted unanimously on 15 September 1999, after recalling previous resolutions on East Timor (Timor-Leste), the Council authorised the establishment of the multinational International Force for East Timor (INTERFET) to restore peace and security in the territory, facilitate humanitarian assistance and protect the United Nations Mission in East Timor (UNAMET).
United Nations Security Council resolution 1272 was adopted unanimously on 25 October 1999, after recalling previous resolutions on East Timor, particularly resolutions 384 (1975), 389 (1976), 1236 (1999), 1246 (1999), 1262 (1999) and 1264 (1999). The council established the United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET) that was responsible for the administration of the territory until its independence in 2002.
The Indonesia–Timor Leste Commission on Truth and Friendship was a truth commission established jointly by the governments of Indonesia and East Timor in August 2005. The commission was officially created to investigate acts of violence that occurred around the independence referendum held in East Timor in 1999 and sought to find the "conclusive truth" behind the events. After holding private hearings and document reviews, the commission handed in the final report on July 15, 2008 to the presidents of both nations, and was fully endorsed by Indonesian President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, providing the first acknowledgement by the government of Indonesia of the human rights violations committed by state institutions in Timor. The commission is notable for being the first modern truth commission to be bilateral.
Australia, a close neighbour of both Indonesia and East Timor, was the only country to recognise Indonesia's annexation of East Timor. Some members of the Australian public supported self-determination for East Timor, and also actively supported the independence movement within Australia. The Australian Government saw the need for both stability and good relations with their neighbour, Indonesia. However, it was criticised in some quarters, including by Xanana Gusmão for putting those issues above human rights. In 1998, the Howard government changed its stance and supported East Timor self-determination, prompting a referendum that saw East Timor gain its independence.
Mário Viegas Carrascalão was an East Timorese politician and diplomat. Carrascalão, a founder of the Timorese Democratic Union (UDT) in 1974 and the Social Democratic Party (SDP) in 2000, served as the governor of East Timor from 1981 to 1992 during the Indonesian occupation of the country. However, he re-joined the East Timorese government following the 1999 independence referendum and the transition to independence. He later served as a deputy prime minister within the IV Constitutional Government of then-Prime Minister Xanana Gusmão from 2009 to 2010.
The logistical support of the multinational International Force East Timor (INTERFET) peacekeeping mission in 1999 and 2000 involved, at its peak, 11,693 personnel from 23 countries. Of these 5,697 were from Australia, making it the largest deployment of Australian forces overseas since the Vietnam War. INTERFET was unusual in that it was led by Australia, casting the country in a wholly unfamiliar role. The logistics and support areas of the Australian Defence Force (ADF) had been subject to deep cuts in the 1990s. The ADF had not anticipated being committed to such a large peacekeeping mission, and was unprepared to support an Australian force projection of this size, much less act as lead nation of an international coalition.
The Mahidi was a militia in East Timor loyal to Indonesia. Its origin is traced back to groups who lost lands and power for fighting the Portuguese and those who collaborated with the Japanese during World War II. The militia was founded in December 1998 and its operations were centered around the Cassa area in the southern Ainaro district. The location is strategic since it is at the crossroads between Manufahi, Ainaro, and Cova Lima districts. Mahidi participated in the 1999 East Timorese crisis, and the group was one of the most violent of the armed forces during the crisis. They were linked to the Suai Church massacre which led to around 200 deaths as well as other mass killings.
The Government Palace in Dili, the capital city of East Timor, is the official workplace of the Prime Minister and Constitutional Government of East Timor. In the final stages of the Portuguese colonial era, it was known as the Official Palace, and was the office of the colonial governor.
United Nations Administered East Timor refers to the period between 25 October 1999 and 20 May 2002 when East Timor was administered by the United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor as a United Nations protectorate.
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