Economy of Berlin

Last updated

Berlin is the capital city of Germany - the 3rd largest national economy in the world by nominal GDP. It is part of the European Union and the eurozone. Berlin is a major international center of business founders, research, tourism and creative industries. Berlin potsdamer platz.jpg
Berlin is the capital city of Germany – the 3rd largest national economy in the world by nominal GDP. It is part of the European Union and the eurozone. Berlin is a major international center of business founders, research, tourism and creative industries.

The economy of Berlin is dominated by the service sector, with around 84% of all companies doing business in services. Important economic sectors in Berlin include life sciences, transportation, information and communication technologies, media and music, advertising and design, biotechnology, environmental services, construction, e-commerce, retail, hotel business, and medical engineering. [1]

Contents

Berlin became one of the largest and most advanced industrial centers in Europe after 1870. After 1900 the Berlin banking district became a major continental financial center and was home to a number of prominent banks. After the end of World War II in 1945 and the subsequent political divisions, the city's location inside of East Germany led to an exodus of many major firms to West Germany. Berlin's economy has been affected through the years by the city's changing geopolitical fortunes from 1961-1989. The city stagnated economically during the Cold War, when West Berlin was isolated geographically and East Berlin suffered from poor economic decisions made by East Germany’s socialist central planners. Furthermore, few East German companies survived the collapse of the GDR and the attempt to privatize them through the Treuhandanstalt.

After German reunification in 1990 large service, technology and creative sectors re-established in the city. A number of companies have re-opened secondary corporate headquarters or satellite offices in Berlin. A number of major German companies were founded in Berlin, such as Siemens, Deutsche Bank, Lufthansa, Allianz, AEG, Telefunken, Osram, Knorr-Bremse and Edeka.

History

Berlin was founded at a point where trade routes crossed the river Spree and it quickly became a commercial center. During the early modern period, the city prospered from its role as Prussian capital by manufacturing luxury goods for the Prussian court and supplies for the Prussian military.

Industrial Revolution

Train factory of August Borsig in 1847 Maschinenbau-Anstalt Borsig, Berlin Chausseestrasse, 1847, Karl Eduard Biermann.jpg
Train factory of August Borsig in 1847

During the mid-19th century, the Industrial Revolution transformed the city’s economy. Berlin became Germany’s main rail hub and a center of locomotive manufacturing. The city became a leader in the manufacture of other kinds of machinery as well, and developed an important chemical industry sector. Toward the end of the 19th century, Berlin became a world leader in the then cutting-edge sector of electrical equipment manufacturing. As the de facto center of the German Zollverein, or Customs Union, and later the seat of the Reichsbank, Berlin became Germany’s banking and financial center as well.

Berlin suffered from both the German hyperinflation of the 1920s [ broken anchor ] and the Great Depression of the 1930s. The city’s economy revived as a center of weapons production under the Nazis, but it lost a pool of entrepreneurial talent when the Nazis forced Jewish businessmen to sell their holdings and ultimately massacred most who did not flee Germany.

After the World Wars

World War II severely damaged Berlin’s industrial infrastructure, and Soviet expropriation of machinery and other capital equipment as “war reparations” further damaged Berlin’s industrial base. Soviet restrictions on transport impeded communication with West Germany and ended hopes that Berlin would resume a role as Germany’s financial center; most banks established headquarters in Frankfurt. In East Berlin, socialist central planners rebuilt a manufacturing sector, but one that was not competitive internationally[ citation needed ] or responsive to market demand. West Berlin’s economy grew increasingly dependent on state subsidies and on its role as an educational and research center.

Reunification

Deutsche Bahn headquarters 16199 dbtower duhanic.jpg
Deutsche Bahn headquarters

Berlin’s and Germany’s unification brought the collapse of many of East Berlin’s producers, which could not compete with market-disciplined Western competitors. Massive unemployment was only partly compensated by the growth of jobs in the construction and infrastructural sectors involved in rebuilding and upgrading East Berlin’s infrastructure. The move of the federal government from Bonn to Berlin in 1999 brought some economic stimulus and tens of thousands of jobs from government employees, parliamentary services, lobbyists and journalism to Berlin. Berlin’s service sectors have also benefited from improved transportation and communications links to the surrounding region.

While some manufacturing remains in the city (Siemens and Bayer Schering Pharma have headquarters in Berlin), the service sectors have become the city’s economic mainstay. Research and development have gained significance, and Berlin was ranked among the top three innovative regions in the EU (after Baden-Württemberg and the Île-de-France in 2006. [2] In the same year unemployment remained high, at 16.5% as of 2006. [3]

Berlin Hauptbahnhof Hauptbahnhof Berlin.jpg
Berlin Hauptbahnhof

Fast-growing sectors are communications, life sciences, mobility and services with information and communication technologies, media and music, advertising and design, biotechnology and environmental services, transportation and medical engineering. [4] Since 2015 Berlin is the top congress city in the world and is home to one of Europe's biggest convention centers in the form of the CityCube Berlin (formerly Internationales Congress Centrum). It contributes to the increasing tourism sector encompassing 592 hotels with 90,700 beds (2007 figures) and numbered over 22 million overnight stays by 9.8 million tourists in 2011. [5] Berlin has established itself as the third most visited city destination in the European Union. [6] [7]

Berlin's economy has grown continuously above the German average in the period from 2005 to 2013. [8] This trend is set to continue, with important improvements to infrastructure, such as the biggest European crossing station, Berlin Hauptbahnhof (inaugurated 2006), the opening of the 3rd biggest German airport, Berlin Brandenburg Airport, in 2020 replacing the decrepit Tegel Airport which was not fit to serve as a modern airline hub. [9]

Also, the revered Berlin music scene, attracting tens of thousands of young tourists flying in for the city's famed clubs [10] [11] has become an increasingly important part of the economy and is set to gain the support of the city music board modeled after the German film promotion authority. [12]

Workforce

Companies

BMW operates a large motorcycle factory in Berlin. BMW G 650 GS Modell 2013.jpg
BMW operates a large motorcycle factory in Berlin.

The state-owned railway, Deutsche Bahn, has its headquarters in Berlin. [18] Many German and international companies have business or service centres in the city.

Among the 20 largest employers in Berlin are the Deutsche Bahn, the hospital providers, Charité and Vivantes, the local public transport provider, BVG, Siemens, and the telecommunications company Deutsche Telekom. Daimler manufactures cars, and BMW manufactures motorcycles in Berlin. Bayer Pharmaceuticals and Berlin Chemie are major pharmaceutical companies headquartered in the city.

Some other notable companies with their headquarters in Berlin are 50Hertz Transmission GmbH, Axel Springer SE, [19] Bombardier Transportation, [20] Bundesdruckerei, KPMG Deutschland, Alba Group  [ de ], Otis Deutschland, Universal Music Germany, [21] Coca-Cola European Partners Deutschland, Delivery Hero, Lloyds Banking Group Europe, [22] solarisBank, N26, Pfizer Germany, Zalando, GASAG, HelloFresh, Deutsche Wohnen, and Vattenfall Deutschland. [23]

The top 10 largest employers in Berlin by number of employees in 2016: [24]

RankNameEmployees (31 December 2016)Sector
1 Deutsche Bahn (incl. Berlin S-Bahn)20,780Transport/Logistics
2 Charité 17,083Health
3 Vivantes 15,467Health
4 Berliner Verkehrsbetriebe 14,417Transport
5 Siemens 11,600Technology
6 Deutsche Post DHL 10,000Logistics
7 Daimler AG 8,800Automobile
8 Deutsche Telekom 8,030Telecommunications
9 Deutsches Rotes Kreuz 7,500Health/Aid
10 Zalando 6,700Online commerce

Tourism

Consumer electronics trade fair IFA IFA 2012 IMG 7244.JPG
Consumer electronics trade fair IFA

Berlin has 788 hotels with 134,399 beds as of December 2014. [25] In 2016 the visitor figures for Berlin have broken records with 31.1 million overnight stays (+2.7%) and 12.9 million hotel guests (+2.9%). Berlin has a yearly total of estimated 135 million day visitors, which puts it in third place among the most-visited city destinations in Europe. International visitors made up 46 per cent of the overnight stays in 2016. The largest visitor groups are from Germany, the United Kingdom, the United States, Spain, Italy, the Netherlands, France, Switzerland, Denmark, Sweden and Poland. [26]

According to ICCA statistics in 2015 Berlin became the top organizer of conferences in the world hosting 195 international meetings. [27] It is home to one Europe's biggest convention centers at the Messe Berlin. Several large-scale trade fairs like the consumer electronics trade fair IFA, the ILA Berlin Air Show, Berlin Fashion Week (including the Bread & Butter), Green Week ("Grüne Woche"), the transport fair InnoTrans, the adult entertainment fair Venus and the tourism fair ITB are held in the city.

Media

Headquarter of the Axel Springer SE Berlin, Kreuzberg, Rudi-Dutschke-Strasse, Axel-Springer-Hochhaus.jpg
Headquarter of the Axel Springer SE

Berlin is home to many international and regional television and radio stations. [28] The public broadcaster RBB has its headquarters in Berlin as well as the commercial broadcasters MTV Germany, Comedy Central and Welt. German international public broadcaster Deutsche Welle has its TV production unit in Berlin, and most national German broadcasters have a studio in the city including Das Erste, ZDF and RTL.

Berlin has Germany's largest number of daily newspapers, with numerous local broadsheets ( Berliner Morgenpost , Berliner Zeitung , Der Tagesspiegel ), and three major tabloids, as well as national dailies of varying sizes, each with a different political affiliation, such as Die Welt , Junge Welt , Neues Deutschland , and Die Tageszeitung . The Exberliner , a monthly magazine, is Berlin's English-language periodical focusing on arts and entertainment. Berlin is also the headquarters of the two major German-language publishing houses Walter de Gruyter and Axel Springer, each of which publish books, periodicals, and multimedia products.

Creative industries

Universal Music Germany HQ Berlin osthafen eierkuehlhaus 20050203 p1000092.jpg
Universal Music Germany HQ

Industries that do business in the creative arts and entertainment are an important and sizable sector of the economy of Berlin. The creative arts sector comprises music, film, advertising, architecture, art, design, fashion, performing arts, publishing, R&D, software, [29] TV, radio, and video games. Around 22,600 creative enterprises, predominantly SMEs, generated over 18,6 billion Euro in total revenue. Berlin's creative industries have contributed an estimated 20% of Berlin's gross domestic product in 2005. [30]

Babelsberg movie studios Studio Babelsberg Haupteingang 2015.jpg
Babelsberg movie studios

Berlin is an important center in the European and German film industry. [31] It is home to more than 1000 film and television production companies, 270 movie theaters, and around 300 national and international co-productions are filmed in the region every year. The historic Babelsberg Studios and the production company UFA are located in nearby Potsdam, as is the Filmuniversität Babelsberg. Companies like Rise FX [32] create special effects for international film productions. The city is also home of the European Film Academy and the German Film Academy, and hosts the annual Berlin Film Festival. Founded in 1951, the festival has been celebrated annually in February since 1978. With over 430,000 admissions it is the largest publicly attended film festival in the world. [33] [34]

Education and research

The Science and Technology Park in Adlershof Berlin Adlershof Photonics Center 2016.jpg
The Science and Technology Park in Adlershof

The Berlin-Brandenburg capital region is one of the most prolific centers of higher education and research in the European Union. The city has four public research universities and 27 private, professional and technical colleges (Hochschulen), offering a wide range of disciplines. [35] Over 180,000 students (+1.8% compared to 2015/16) were enrolled in the winter term of 2016/17. [36] The three largest universities combined have approximately 100,000 enrolled students. They are the Humboldt Universität zu Berlin (HU Berlin) with 34,000 students, the Freie Universität Berlin (Free University of Berlin, FU Berlin) with about 34,500 students, and the Technische Universität Berlin (TU Berlin) with 30,000 students. The Universität der Künste (UdK) has about 4,000 students and the Berlin School of Economics and Law has enrollment of about 10,000 students.

The city has a high density of research institutions, such as the Fraunhofer Society, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Scientific Community and the Max Planck Society, which are independent of, or only loosely connected to its universities. A total number of 62,000 scientists are working in research and development. The city is one of the centers of knowledge and innovation communities (Future Information and Communication Society and Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation) of the European Institute of Innovation and Technology (EIT). [37]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Berlin</span> Capital and largest city of Germany

Berlin is the capital and largest city of Germany, both by area and by population. Its more than 3.85 million inhabitants make it the European Union's most populous city, as measured by population within city limits having gained this status after the United Kingdom's, and thus London's, departure from the European Union. Simultaneously, the city is one of the states of Germany, and is the third smallest state in the country in terms of area. Berlin is surrounded by the state of Brandenburg, and Brandenburg's capital Potsdam is nearby. The urban area of Berlin has a population of over 4.5 million and is therefore the most populous urban area in Germany. The Berlin-Brandenburg capital region has around 6.2 million inhabitants and is Germany's second-largest metropolitan region after the Rhine-Ruhr region, and the fifth-biggest metropolitan region by GDP in the European Union.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Frankfurt</span> Largest city in Hesse, Germany

Frankfurt am Main is the most populous city in the German state of Hesse. Its 773,068 inhabitants as of 2022 make it the fifth-most populous city in Germany,. Located in the foreland of the Taunus on its namesake Main, it forms a continuous conurbation with Offenbach am Main; its urban area has a population of over 2.7 million. The city is the heart of the larger Rhine-Main metropolitan region, which has a population of more than 5.8 million and is Germany's second-largest metropolitan region after the Rhine-Ruhr region and the fourth biggest metropolitan region by GDP in the European Union. Frankfurt is home to the European Central Bank, one of the institutional seats of the European Union, while Frankfurt's central business district lies about 90 km (56 mi) northwest of the geographic center of the EU at Gadheim in Lower Franconia. Like France and Franconia, the city is named after the Franks. Frankfurt is the largest city in the Rhenish Franconian dialect area.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Economy of Germany</span>

The economy of Germany is a highly developed social market economy. It has the largest national economy in Europe, the third-largest by nominal GDP in the world, and fifth by GDP (PPP). Due to a volatile currency exchange rate, Germany's GDP as measured in dollars fluctuates sharply. In 2017, the country accounted for 28% of the euro area economy according to the International Monetary Fund (IMF). Germany is a founding member of the European Union and the eurozone.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Baden-Württemberg</span> Federal state in south western Germany

Baden-Württemberg, commonly shortened to BW or BaWü, is a German state in Southwest Germany, east of the Rhine, which forms the southern part of Germany's western border with France. With more than 11.07 million inhabitants as of 2019 across a total area of nearly 35,752 km2 (13,804 sq mi), it is the third-largest German state by both area and population. As a federated state, Baden-Württemberg is a partly-sovereign parliamentary republic. The largest city in Baden-Württemberg is the state capital of Stuttgart, followed by Mannheim and Karlsruhe. Other major cities are Freiburg im Breisgau, Heidelberg, Heilbronn, Pforzheim, Reutlingen, Tübingen, and Ulm.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">DB Cargo</span> Division of Deutsche Bahn and an international transport and logistics company.

DB Cargo is an international transport and logistics company. It is responsible for all of the rail freight transport activities of the German railway company Deutsche Bahn both inside Germany and on a global level. DB Cargo has a registered office in Mainz and a further administrative office in Frankfurt am Main.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deutsche Bahn</span> State-owned national railway company of Germany

The Deutsche Bahn AG is the national railway company of Germany, and a state-owned enterprise under the control of the German government. Headquartered in the Bahntower in Berlin, it is a joint-stock company (AG) and the largest railway company in the world.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Berlin Brandenburg Airport</span> International airport serving Berlin, Germany

Berlin Brandenburg Airport Willy Brandt, , is an international airport in Schönefeld, just south of the German capital and state of Berlin, in the state of Brandenburg. Named after the former West Berlin mayor and West German chancellor Willy Brandt, it is located 18 kilometres (11 mi) south-east of the city centre and serves as a base for Eurowings, easyJet and Ryanair. It mostly has flights to European metropolitan and leisure destinations as well as a number of intercontinental services.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Berlin S-Bahn</span> Rapid transit railway system in and around Berlin

The Berlin S-Bahn is a rapid transit railway system in and around Berlin, the capital city of Germany. It has been in operation under this name since December 1930, having been previously called the special tariff area Berliner Stadt-, Ring- und Vorortbahnen. It complements the Berlin U-Bahn and is the link to many outer-Berlin areas, such as Berlin Brandenburg Airport. As such, the Berlin S-Bahn blends elements of a commuter rail service and a rapid transit system.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">DB Regio</span> Subsidiary of Deutsche Bahn AG

DB Regio AG is a subsidiary of Deutsche Bahn which operates regional and commuter train services in Germany. DB Regio AG, headquartered in Frankfurt am Main. It is a 100% subsidiary of the Deutsche Bahn Group and there part of the DB Regio business segment, which also includes DB Regionnetz Verkehrs GmbH and other independent subsidiaries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Berlin Südkreuz station</span> Railway station in Berlin

Berlin Südkreuz station is a railway station in the German capital Berlin. The station was originally opened in 1898 and is an interchange station. The Berlin Ringbahn line of the Berlin S-Bahn metro railway is situated on the upper level and connects to the east and west, whilst the Anhalter Bahn and Dresdner Bahn intercity railway routes reach the station on the lower, north-south level. The station was extensively rebuilt between the late 1990s and 2006, and was renamed Berlin Südkreuz on 28 May 2006.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Staaken</span> Quarter of Berlin in Germany

Staaken is a locality at the western rim of Berlin within the borough of Spandau.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Schönefeld (bei Berlin) station</span> Railway station in Germany

Schönefeld station is a railway station in Schönefeld next to the former Berlin Schönefeld Airport, just outside Berlin. The station is on the Grünauer Kreuz–Berlin Brandenburg Airport railway and is served by S-Bahn lines S9 and S45. It is also served by RB 24 and RB 32.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transport in Berlin</span> Overview of the transport in Berlin

Berlin has developed a highly complex transportation infrastructure providing very diverse modes of urban mobility. 979 bridges cross 197 kilometers of innercity waterways, 5,334 kilometres (3,314 mi) of roads run through Berlin, of which 73 kilometres (45 mi) are motorways. Long-distance rail lines connect Berlin with all of the major cities of Germany and with many cities in neighboring European countries. Regional rail lines provide access to the surrounding regions of Brandenburg and to the Baltic Sea.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Potsdam Griebnitzsee station</span> S-Bahn station in Potsdam, Brandenburg, Germany

Potsdam-Griebnitzsee station is a regional and S-Bahn station in Potsdam on the outskirts of Berlin in the German state of Brandenburg. The station is located in the east of the Babelsberg suburb of the city of Potsdam in the state of Brandenburg, and about 600 metres (2,000 ft) outside the Berlin city boundary. It takes its name from the adjacent Griebnitzsee lake. It is on the Wannsee Railway. During the division of Germany, it served as a border station for traffic to West Berlin. The station is now served by trains on line S7 of the Berlin S-Bahn and Regionalbahn services RB 20, RB 22, and RB 23. It is classified by Deutsche Bahn as a category 4 station.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Berlin–Dresden railway</span> Railway line in Germany

The Berlin–Dresden railway is a double track, electrified main line railway in the German states of Berlin, Brandenburg and Saxony, which was originally built and operated by the Berlin-Dresden Railway Company. It runs from Berlin through the southern Teltow countryside and then between Lower Lusatia and Fläming Heath through Elsterwerda and the Großenhainer Pflege countryside to Dresden.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Netinera</span>

Netinera is a bus and railway company operating in Germany. It is presently a wholly-owned subsidiary of the Italian state owned railway company Ferrovie dello Stato Italiane.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Culture in Berlin</span> Overview of the culture of Berlin

Berlin is recognized as a world city of culture and creative industries. Numerous cultural institutions, many of which enjoy international reputation are representing the diverse heritage of the city. Many young people, cultural entrepreneurs and international artists continue to settle in the city. Berlin has established itself as a popular nightlife and entertainment center in Europe.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Media in Berlin</span> Overview of mass media in Berlin, Germany

Berlin is a major media centre in Germany and Europe.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">BER Airport station</span>

BER Airport station, until December 2023 Flughafen BER – Terminal 1-2 station, is a railway station located under the main terminal of Berlin Brandenburg Airport, Germany serving its Terminals 1 and 2. Most train services are operated by Deutsche Bahn, which provides long-distance and regional connections while S-Bahn Berlin offers suburban lines.

The S-Bahn Berlin GmbH is the operator of the Berlin S-Bahn. The company was founded on 1 January 1995 as a wholly owned subsidiary of Deutsche Bahn.

References

  1. "Poor but sexy". The Economist. 21 September 2006. Retrieved 19 August 2008.
  2. News analysis: innovation index November 2006 (in German)
  3. Landespresseamt (in German) URL accessed on 2 November 2006
  4. Poor but sexy, The Economist, Accessed 12 November 2006
  5. Berlin-Tourismus steuert neuen Rekord an, Morgenpost, 11 November 2011
  6. Jedes Jahr ein neuer Rekord(German), Der Tagesspiegel, Accessed 6 February 2008
  7. Land Berlin stützt Tourismuswerbung(German), 6 January 2024
  8. Speech by then Berlin Senator of the Economy, Harald Wolf, held 9 June 2011, retrieved 18 November 2011 [ permanent dead link ]
  9. Frankfurter Rundschau: Air Berlin hat in Schönefeld großes vor, 31 october 2011, retrieved november 2011
  10. weekend.be: Berlin by night, 28 July 2011, retrieved november 2011
  11. "trackitdown: Easyjet Clubbers Blamed For Spoiling Berlin, 18 march 2011, retrieved november 2011". Archived from the original on 4 April 2011. Retrieved 18 November 2011.
  12. Die Tageszeitung: Unterstützung für die Musikbranche, 18 october 2011, retrieved november 2011
  13. "Erwerbstätige am Arbeitsort in Berlin und Brandenburg – Vierteljahresergebnisse".
  14. "Jobwunder in Berlin: Rekord bei Erwerbstätigen". Archived from the original on 2 February 2017. Retrieved 27 January 2017.
  15. "Zahl der Arbeitslosen sinkt in Berlin und steigt in Brandenburg". Archived from the original on 15 August 2022. Retrieved 14 January 2022.
  16. "Zahl der Arbeitslosen sinkt in Berlin und steigt in Brandenburg". Archived from the original on 15 August 2022. Retrieved 14 January 2022.
  17. 46.000 Stellen sind in Berlin und Brandenburg nicht besetzt
  18. "Deutsche Bahn AG at a glance Archived April 26, 2009, at the Wayback Machine ." Deutsche Bahn . Retrieved on 12 May 2009.
  19. "Company Website". Archived from the original on 1 November 2011. Retrieved 18 November 2011.
  20. Bombardier Transportation website
  21. Company Website Contact Information
  22. "Home". lloydsbank.eu.
  23. "Vattenfall Europe English summary". Archived from the original on 5 November 2011. Retrieved 18 November 2011.
  24. "Top 200 Arbeitgeber in der Hauptstadtregion". Archived from the original on 12 September 2017. Retrieved 19 March 2018.
  25. "Strong tourism and convention destination Berlin". visitBerlin. Retrieved 13 August 2012.[ permanent dead link ]
  26. Briten, Spanier und Amerikaner führen Tourismus-Statistik an, Tagesspiegel, retrieved 22 February 2017
  27. Berlin No.1 city and Germany No.2 country in new ICCA rankings, CMW, retrieved 12 January 2017
  28. "Media Companies in Berlin and Potsdam". medienboard. Archived from the original on 2 June 2013. Retrieved 19 August 2008.
  29. Berlin Cracks the Startup Code, Bloomberg, Retrieved 2017
  30. "Creative Industries in Berlin". Kulturwirtschaft.de. 7 April 2011. Retrieved 7 April 2012.
  31. "Wall-to-wall culture". The Age. Australia. 10 November 2007. Retrieved 30 November 2007.
  32. "RISE | Visual Effects Studios".
  33. "European Film Academy". European Film Academy. Retrieved 7 April 2012.
  34. "Berlin Film Festival". Berlinale.de. Retrieved 7 April 2012.
  35. "Metropolis of Sciences". Berlin Partner GmbH. Archived from the original on 24 April 2008. Retrieved 19 August 2008.
  36. "Mehr Studierende-Neuer Rekord in Berlin". Tagesspiegel (in German). 30 November 2016. Retrieved 13 January 2017.
  37. "European Institute of Innovation and Technology: Home". Europa (web portal). Archived from the original on 28 March 2010. Retrieved 8 June 2010.