Escape breathing apparatus

Last updated April 27, 2024

Escape breathing apparatus, also called escape respirators, escape sets, self-rescuer masks, emergency life saving apparatus (ELSA), emergency escape breathing devices (EEBD), and Respiratory Protective Smoke Escape Devices (RPED),^[1]^[2] are portable breathing apparatus that provide the wearer with respiratory protection for a limited period, intended for escape from or through an environment where there is no breathable ambient atmosphere. This includes escape through water and in areas containing harmful gases or fumes or other atmospheres immediately dangerous to life or health (IDLH).^[3]

Escape breathing apparatus may be air-purifying escape respirators or self-contained atmosphere-supplying escape respirators. They may use a breathing hood, facepiece or mouthpiece and nose-clip as the user respiratory interface. Atmosphere-supplying apparatus may be rebreathers with a chemical or compressed gas oxygen supply, positive pressure demand apparatus, or constant flow apparatus using high pressure compressed air. Contamination of the breathing gas may be avoided by relying on a good seal around the user respiratory interface, or by a small positive pressure relative to the surroundings.^[3]^[1]

Escape breathing apparatus are not generally intended to be used for anything other than escaping a dangerous environment.^[3] An escape-only respirator is defined as "a respirator intended to be used only for emergency exit".^[4]

Applications

Escape breathing apparatus are a class of self contained atmosphere supplying or air purifying breathing apparatus for use in emergencies, intended to allow the user to pass through areas without a breathable atmosphere to a place of relative safety where the ambient air is safe to breathe. These are ambient pressure systems, and include:

Helicopter escape set
Mine escape set
Submarine escape set
Amphibious Tank Escape Apparatus
Smoke hood

Early escape sets were often rebreathers and were typically used to escape from submarines that were unable to surface. Escape sets are also used ashore, in the mining industry, and by the military for escape from tanks.

The small open-circuit scuba Helicopter Aircrew Breathing Device has the similar purpose of providing breathing gas to escape from a ditched helicopter.

Selection

Escape breathing apparatus have the function of allowing a person working in an environment that is normally safe, enough time to escape from respiratory hazards that may occur without sufficient warning to evacuate without respiratory protection. therefore selection relies mainly on the time required to escape, and the probability of IDLH or oxygen deficiency, rather than assigned protection factors.^[5]

Calculation of the time likely to be needed for escape and the recommended escape route is the responsibility of the employer, and should take into account the reasonably foreseeable emergencies that might require escape.

An air purification type escape respirator includes a filter or absorbent cartridge suitable for the environment in which it is intended to be used. They are unsuitable for escape through potentially oxygen depleted environments. An escape respirator that provides autonomous gas will allow the user to escape most environments that require only respiratory protection. They are generally available with endurance ratings from 3 to 60 minutes. 10 and 15 minutes are common specifications.^[3]^[5] An escape respirator provides no chemical or environmental protection to the rest of the user's body, and the need for eye protection must be considered when choosing the user respiratory interface.^[5]

Types

Autonomous breathing gas supply

These breathing apparatus carry a supply of breathing gas calculated to be sufficient for most users to escape within the specified time-frame.

Rebreathers

Atmospheric air contains about 21% oxygen. In normal breathing the body uses about 4% and replaces it with carbon dioxide. A volume of air can be breathed several times before its oxygen content is exhausted, but carbon dioxide accumulates as the oxygen is used up, and causes discomfort and respiratory distress, so it must be removed from the breathing cycle. There is also a danger that when the oxygen level is too low, the user will lose consciousness due to hypoxia, and my asphyxiate, so oxygen must be provided to compensate for use.^{[ citation needed ]}

The absorbent used for non-regenerative carbon dioxide absorption is usually sodalime, or a material based on sodalime, but in former times slaked lime or quicklime or caustic soda was sometimes used.^{[ citation needed ]}

Rebreathers using chemical oxygen generation can be small, light and easy to wear. They may use the pendulum type breathing system, which has larger dead space than a one-way loop architecture, but is simpler and cheaper to manufacture. Endurance is generally from 20 to 100 minutes Oxygen is produced by a chemical reaction between the carbon dioxide and potassium superoxide absorbent, which both removes the carbon dioxide and supplies a slightly larger volume of oxygen to replace that which was used.^[3]^[6]

A basic unit may use a bite-grip mouthpiece and nose clip, or may include goggles or a hood if eye protection is necessary. Some units have a cartridge to inflate the bag when first used, but this is mainly to provide a bit more volume in the counterlung, which can reduce the feeling of insufficient gas at startup when the bag is nearly empty.^[3]

These sets can offer a relatively long endurance, and may be classed as working breathing apparatus as well, in which case they may be worn to carry out a task, unlike most escape sets which are for escape only. The endurance times are affected by exertion. Harder work increases oxygen usage and carbon dioxide production, both of which use up the chemicals in the scrubber. The gas delivered can be fairly hot and may be uncomfortable to breathe in a hot environment. The sets are usually made for one use only so activation for false alarms or misuse can be costly. Some users may have a gag reflex from the mouthpiece.^[3]^[6] Potassium superoxide is violently reactive in contact with water, and could be dangerous for escape sets which may leak while immersed.

Oxygen rebreathers can also use less reactive scrubber absorbent which only removes carbon dioxide, but must then have an alternative supply of oxygen, usually compressed gas from a high pressure cylinder.

Submarine escape sets had a mouthpiece, so the user had to also wear a noseclip to prevent breathing water through the nose. The endurance of a submarine escape set was between 15 and 45 minutes.^{[ citation needed ]}

Open circuit escape breathing apparatus

Open circuit escape breathing apparatus may be demand supplied or constant flow.^[3]

A positive pressure open circuit breathing apparatus with a full-face mask provides the highest level of protection against a toxic environment, but is relatively complex, expensive, and requires greater competence to use efficiently. They provide breathing air from a high pressure cylinder carried by the user, supplied through a pressure reducing regulator and a demand valve, to a mask which covers the whole face, and must fit correctly to prevent gas wastage via leaks. The air is provided at a pressure slightly above ambient to ensure that any leaks are outwards. Recharging is simple and inexpensive. Vision through the mask is usually quite good, and voice communication is usually acceptable. Endurance depends on cylinder size and working pressure, effectiveness of the face seal, and level of exertion and anxiety of the user. 10 to 15 minutes is typical, though more is possible.^[3]^[6]

There may be difficulties with sealing over facial hear, and wearing over eyeglasses. More skill is needed to safely and effectively use this type of breathing apparatus, mainly due to the need to fit the mask correctly.^[3]^[6]

Constant flow open circuit breathing apparatus delivers compressed air from a storage cylinder at about 40 litres per minute, regardless of the activity of the user. This makes the endurance accurately predictable and dependent on the cylinder volume and charging pressure. Since they are commonly provided with a hood and seal on the neck, they are tolerant of facial hair and eyeglasses, but the large hood volume and soft plastic viewport do not provide very good vision, as it can wrinkle and crease, and it is possible to exercise hard enough to need more air than the regulator will provide. Voice communication is hindered by the soft hood fabric and the constant noise of the gas flowing into the hood.^[3]

The air supply is typically from a 200 bar aluminium, steel or fibre-wound composite cylinder. A 2 litre cylinder will supply roughly 10 minutes endurance, and a 3 litre cylinder about 15 minutes at 35 to 37 litres per minute. A rubber neck seal helps provide a positive pressure within the hood. The total mass of a set, complete with sling carrying bag is typically in the order of 5 to 7 kg.^[7]

Ambient air purifiers

Escape breathing apparatus may provide purified ambient air where it has sufficient oxygen and it is reasonably practicable to purify it of the expected contaminants.

Certification

Escape respirators should be certified by a national authority analogous to the United States' National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) for use in the atmosphere types for which the respirator is intended.^[4] Some standards apply to the level of protection for the user, and others relate to the intrinsic safety of the equipment for use in flammable and potentially explosive atmospheres. Some standards are voluntary, going above the minimum requirements of a national authority such as NIOSH.^[8] Conformance with voluntary standards may be shown through third-party product certification such as those issued by the Safety Equipment Institute (SEI).

Depending on the industry in which they are used, escape respirators may have to comply with, or be approved in terms of, one or more of:^[9]

ASTM E2952-23 — Standard Specification for Air-Purifying Respiratory Protective Smoke Escape Devices (RPED)^[2]
NFPA 1981-19 — Standard on Open-Circuit Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA) for Emergency Services^[10]
NFPA 1984-22 — Standard on Respirators for Wildland Fire-Fighting and Wildland Urban Interface Operations^[11]
NFPA 1986-23 — Standard on Respiratory Protection Equipment for Tactical and Technical Operations^[12]
NFPA 1987-23 — Standard on Combination Unit Respirator Systems for Tactical and Technical Operations^[13]
EN 402:2003 — Respiratory protective devices - Lung governed demand Self-contained open-circuit compressed air breathing apparatus with full face mask or mouthpiece assembly for escape.^[9]
ISO 23269-1:2008 — Ships and marine technology — Breathing apparatus for ships — Part 1: Emergency escape breathing devices (EEBD) for shipboard use.^[7]^[9]
ISO 23269-4:2011^[7]
EN 1127-1:2011 — Explosive atmospheres - Explosion prevention and protection - Part 1: Basic concepts and methodology
EN1146:2005^[7]
EN 13463-1:2009 — Non-electrical equipment for use in potentially explosive atmospheres – Part 1: Basic method and requirements^[9]
IEC/TS 60079-32-1:2013 — Explosive atmospheres – Part 32-1: Electrostatic hazards, guidance^[9]
SOLAS Chapter II-2, the Marine Equipment Directive^[7] and the Pressure Equipment Directive.^[7]

History

Development of the first militarily useful submarines before the First World War raised the question about rescue and escape if the submarine was unable to surface. Robert Henry Davis and Henry A. Fleuss developed a rebreather, which was useful in the mining industry and under water.

One example is the Davis Submerged Escape Apparatus. Escape sets were also used ashore, e.g. in the mining industry, and for escape from tanks (Amphibious Tank Escape Apparatus).

1903: Siebe Gorman started to make this breathing set in England; in the years afterwards it was improved, and later was called the Davis Submerged Escape Apparatus.
1905: An important innovation: metering valves to control the supply of oxygen. This was promptly adopted by other companies which made escape sets.
1907: Draeger of Lübeck invented the U-Boot-Retter = "submarine rescuer".

Both systems were based on oxygen supply from a high-pressure cylinder with simultaneous absorption of carbon dioxide by an inserted cartridge filled with sodium hydroxide.

1916: The Draeger model DM 2 became standard equipment of the German Navy.
1926: Draeger displayed a rescue breathing apparatus that the wearer could swim with. While the previous devices served only for ascending to the surface and were designed also to develop buoyancy so that the wearer arrived at the surface without swimming movements, the diving set had weights, which also made it possible to dive down with it, to search and rescue after an accident.
1939: Hans Hass developed from the escape set a type of rebreather with its bag on his back and two breathing tubes but no backpack box. These sets appear much in his movies and books.

In popular media

Escape sets are used in these films:

Das Boot (Johann das Gespenst stops water from breaking in under a diesel engine).^{[ citation needed ]}
Haie und kleine Fische [ de ] (controlled exit from a sunk submarine).^{[ citation needed ]}
In Enemy Hands (To survive a prolonged submersion while under attack by a destroyer)^{[ citation needed ]}

Related Research Articles

A scuba set, originally just scuba, is any breathing apparatus that is entirely carried by an underwater diver and provides the diver with breathing gas at the ambient pressure. Scuba is an anacronym for self-contained underwater breathing apparatus. Although strictly speaking the scuba set is only the diving equipment that is required for providing breathing gas to the diver, general usage includes the harness or rigging by which it is carried and those accessories which are integral parts of the harness and breathing apparatus assembly, such as a jacket or wing style buoyancy compensator and instruments mounted in a combined housing with the pressure gauge. In the looser sense, scuba set has been used to refer to all the diving equipment used by the scuba diver, though this would more commonly and accurately be termed scuba equipment or scuba gear. Scuba is overwhelmingly the most common underwater breathing system used by recreational divers and is also used in professional diving when it provides advantages, usually of mobility and range, over surface-supplied diving systems and is allowed by the relevant legislation and code of practice.

A self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) is a device worn to provide an autonomous supply of breathable gas in an atmosphere that is immediately dangerous to life or health. They are typically used in firefighting and industry. The term self-contained means that the SCBA is not dependent on a remote supply of breathing gas. If designed for use under water, it is also known as a scuba set. When not used underwater, they are sometimes called industrial breathing sets. Some types are also referred to as a compressed air breathing apparatus (CABA) or simply breathing apparatus (BA). Unofficial names include air pack, air tank, oxygen cylinder or simply pack, which are mostly used in firefighting.

A rebreather is a breathing apparatus that absorbs the carbon dioxide of a user's exhaled breath to permit the rebreathing (recycling) of the substantially unused oxygen content, and unused inert content when present, of each breath. Oxygen is added to replenish the amount metabolised by the user. This differs from open-circuit breathing apparatus, where the exhaled gas is discharged directly into the environment. The purpose is to extend the breathing endurance of a limited gas supply, and, for covert military use by frogmen or observation of underwater life, eliminating the bubbles produced by an open circuit system and in turn not scaring wildlife being filmed. A rebreather is generally understood to be a portable unit carried by the user. The same technology on a vehicle or non-mobile installation is more likely to be referred to as a life-support system.

A respirator is a device designed to protect the wearer from inhaling hazardous atmospheres including fumes, vapours, gases and particulate matter such as dusts and airborne pathogens such as viruses. There are two main categories of respirators: the air-purifying respirator, in which respirable air is obtained by filtering a contaminated atmosphere, and the air-supplied respirator, in which an alternate supply of breathable air is delivered. Within each category, different techniques are employed to reduce or eliminate noxious airborne contaminants.

A breathing apparatus or breathing set is equipment which allows a person to breathe in a hostile environment where breathing would otherwise be impossible, difficult, harmful, or hazardous, or assists a person to breathe. A respirator, medical ventilator, or resuscitator may also be considered to be breathing apparatus. Equipment that supplies or recycles breathing gas other than ambient air in a space used by several people is usually referred to as being part of a life-support system, and a life-support system for one person may include breathing apparatus, when the breathing gas is specifically supplied to the user rather than to the enclosure in which the user is the occupant.

A breathing mask is a mask that covers the mouth, nose, and optionally other parts of the face or head, designed to constrain and direct the wearer's breath to and/or from a particular breathing apparatus. It may mean, or be part of, one of these types:

Dräger is a German company based in Lübeck which makes breathing and protection equipment, gas detection and analysis systems, and noninvasive patient monitoring technologies. Customers include hospitals, fire departments and diving companies.

A smoke hood, also called an Air-Purifying Respiratory Protective Smoke Escape Device (RPED), is a hood wherein a transparent airtight bag seals around the head of the wearer while an air filter held in the mouth connects to the outside atmosphere and is used to breathe. Smoke hoods are a class of emergency breathing apparatus intended to protect victims of fire from the effects of smoke inhalation. A smoke hood is a predecessor to the gas mask. The first modern smoke hood design was by Garrett Morgan and patented in 1912.

The Davis Submerged Escape Apparatus, was an early type of oxygen rebreather invented in 1910 by Sir Robert Davis, head of Siebe Gorman and Co. Ltd., inspired by the earlier Fleuss system, and adopted by the Royal Navy after further development by Davis in 1927. While intended primarily as an emergency escape apparatus for submarine crews, it was soon also used for diving, being a handy shallow water diving apparatus with a thirty-minute endurance, and as an industrial breathing set.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Submarine Escape Immersion Equipment</span> Whole-body exposure suit that allows submariners to escape from a sunken submarine

Submarine Escape Immersion Equipment (SEIE), also known as Submarine Escape and Immersion Equipment, is a whole-body suit and one-man life raft that was first produced in 1952. It was designed by British company RFD Beaufort Limited and allows submariners to escape from a sunken submarine. The suit also provides protection against hypothermia and has replaced the Steinke hood rescue device. The suit allows survivors to escape a disabled submarine at depths down to 600 feet (183 m), with an ascent speed of 2–3 meters/second, at a rate of eight or more sailors per hour.

The breathing performance of regulators is a measure of the ability of a breathing gas regulator to meet the demands placed on it at varying ambient pressures and temperatures, and under varying breathing loads, for the range of breathing gases it may be expected to deliver. Performance is an important factor in design and selection of breathing regulators for any application, but particularly for underwater diving, as the range of ambient operating pressures and temperatures, and variety of breathing gases is broader in this application. A diving regulator is a device that reduces the high pressure in a diving cylinder or surface supply hose to the same pressure as the diver's surroundings. It is desirable that breathing from a regulator requires low effort even when supplying large amounts of breathing gas as this is commonly the limiting factor for underwater exertion, and can be critical during diving emergencies. It is also preferable that the gas is delivered smoothly without any sudden changes in resistance while inhaling or exhaling, and that the regulator does not lock up and either fail to supply gas or free-flow. Although these factors may be judged subjectively, it is convenient to have standards by which the many different types and manufactures of regulators may be objectively compared.

An orinasal mask, oro-nasal mask or oral-nasal mask is a breathing mask that covers the mouth and the nose only. It may be a complete independent item, as an oxygen mask, or on some anaesthetic apparatuses, or it may be fitted as a component inside a fullface mask on underwater breathing apparatus, a gas mask or an industrial respirator to reduce the amount of dead space. It may be designed for its lower edge to seal on the front of the lower jaw or to go under the chin.

Underwater breathing apparatus is equipment which allows the user to breathe underwater. The three major categories of ambient pressure underwater breathing apparatus are:

Rebreather diving is underwater diving using diving rebreathers, a class of underwater breathing apparatus which recirculate the breathing gas exhaled by the diver after replacing the oxygen used and removing the carbon dioxide metabolic product. Rebreather diving is practiced by recreational, military and scientific divers in applications where it has advantages over open circuit scuba, and surface supply of breathing gas is impracticable. The main advantages of rebreather diving are extended gas endurance, low noise levels, and lack of bubbles.

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to underwater diving:

The following index is provided as an overview of and topical guide to underwater diving:

A Diving rebreather is an underwater breathing apparatus that absorbs the carbon dioxide of a diver's exhaled breath to permit the rebreathing (recycling) of the substantially unused oxygen content, and unused inert content when present, of each breath. Oxygen is added to replenish the amount metabolised by the diver. This differs from open-circuit breathing apparatus, where the exhaled gas is discharged directly into the environment. The purpose is to extend the breathing endurance of a limited gas supply, and, for covert military use by frogmen or observation of underwater life, to eliminate the bubbles produced by an open circuit system. A diving rebreather is generally understood to be a portable unit carried by the user, and is therefore a type of self-contained underwater breathing apparatus (scuba). A semi-closed rebreather carried by the diver may also be known as a gas extender. The same technology on a submersible or surface installation is more likely to be referred to as a life-support system.

A supplied-air respirator (SAR) or air-line respirator is a breathing apparatus used in places where the ambient air may not be safe to breathe. It uses an air hose to supply air from outside the danger zone. It is similar to a self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA), except that SCBA users carry their air with them in high pressure cylinders, while SAR users get it from a remote stationary air supply connected to them by a hose.

High altitude breathing apparatus is a breathing apparatus which allows a person to breathe more effectively at an altitude where the partial pressure of oxygen in the ambient atmospheric air is insufficient for the task or to sustain consciousness or human life over the long or short term.

A breathing apparatus or breathing set is equipment which allows a person to breathe in a hostile environment where breathing would otherwise be impossible, difficult, harmful, or hazardous, or assists a person to breathe. A respirator, medical ventilator, or resuscitator may also be considered to be breathing apparatus. Equipment that supplies or recycles breathing gas other than ambient air in a space used by several people is usually referred to as being part of a life-support system, and a life-support system for one person may include breathing apparatus, when the breathing gas is specifically supplied to the user rather than to the enclosure in which the user is the occupant.

References

1 2 "Emergency escape breathing device EEBD". en.safetygas.com. Archived from the original on 27 July 2023. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
1 2 ASTM E2952 Standard Specification for Air-Purifying Respiratory Protective Smoke Escape Devices (RPED) (2023 ed.). West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International (published June 2023). May 1, 2023.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 "Choosing Escape Breathing Apparatus". /www.ashsafety.com. Ash Safety. Archived from the original on 17 August 2023. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
1 2 "29 CFR § 1910.134 - Respiratory protection". LII / Legal Information Institute. Archived from the original on 2020-09-10. Retrieved 2020-09-27.
1 2 3 "NIOSH Respirator Selection Logic 2004, Chapter IV. Escape Respirators". NIOSH Publication No. 2005-100. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. October 2004. Archived from the original on 2023-08-18. Retrieved 2023-08-18.
1 2 3 4 "A Guide to Escape Breathing Apparatus". www.mrsl.co.uk. 27 July 2021. Archived from the original on 18 August 2023. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
1 2 3 4 5 6 "Dräger Saver CF – Emergency Escape Breathing Apparatus (EEBA)" (PDF). www.draeger.com. Retrieved 18 August 2023.
↑ Roy, Derek (April 1, 2020). "Selecting Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus for Industrial Plants". OH&S Occupational Health and Safety. Retrieved March 29, 2024.
1 2 3 4 5 "Emergency Escape Breathing Devices use in OGP applications". gb.msasafety.com. Archived from the original on 25 September 2022. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
↑ NFPA 1981 Standard on Open-Circuit Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA) for Emergency Services (2019 ed.). Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association. September 3, 2018. ISBN 978-145592088-4.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
↑ NFPA 1984 Standard on Respirators for Wildland Fire-Fighting and Wildland Urban Interface Operations (2022 ed.). Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association. April 8, 2021. ISBN 978-145592810-1.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
↑ NFPA 1986 Standard on Respiratory Protection Equipment for Tactical and Technical Operations (2023 ed.). Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association. April 24, 2022. ISBN 978-145592947-4.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
↑ NFPA 1987 Standard on Combination Unit Respirator Systems for Tactical and Technical Operations (2023 ed.). Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association. April 24, 2022. ISBN 978-145592946-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)

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[safetygas-1] 1 2 "Emergency escape breathing device EEBD". en.safetygas.com. Archived from the original on 27 July 2023. Retrieved 17 August 2023.

[:0-2] 1 2 ASTM E2952 Standard Specification for Air-Purifying Respiratory Protective Smoke Escape Devices (RPED) (2023 ed.). West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International (published June 2023). May 1, 2023.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)

[ashsafety-3] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 "Choosing Escape Breathing Apparatus". /www.ashsafety.com. Ash Safety. Archived from the original on 17 August 2023. Retrieved 17 August 2023.

[29_CFR_1910-4] 1 2 "29 CFR § 1910.134 - Respiratory protection". LII / Legal Information Institute. Archived from the original on 2020-09-10. Retrieved 2020-09-27.

[NIOSH-5] 1 2 3 "NIOSH Respirator Selection Logic 2004, Chapter IV. Escape Respirators". NIOSH Publication No. 2005-100. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. October 2004. Archived from the original on 2023-08-18. Retrieved 2023-08-18.

[MRS-6] 1 2 3 4 "A Guide to Escape Breathing Apparatus". www.mrsl.co.uk. 27 July 2021. Archived from the original on 18 August 2023. Retrieved 17 August 2023.

[Draeger-7] 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Dräger Saver CF – Emergency Escape Breathing Apparatus (EEBA)" (PDF). www.draeger.com. Retrieved 18 August 2023.

[8] Roy, Derek (April 1, 2020). "Selecting Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus for Industrial Plants". OH&S Occupational Health and Safety. Retrieved March 29, 2024.

[MSA-9] 1 2 3 4 5 "Emergency Escape Breathing Devices use in OGP applications". gb.msasafety.com. Archived from the original on 25 September 2022. Retrieved 17 August 2023.

[10] NFPA 1981 Standard on Open-Circuit Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA) for Emergency Services (2019 ed.). Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association. September 3, 2018. ISBN 978-145592088-4.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)

[11] NFPA 1984 Standard on Respirators for Wildland Fire-Fighting and Wildland Urban Interface Operations (2022 ed.). Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association. April 8, 2021. ISBN 978-145592810-1.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)

[12] NFPA 1986 Standard on Respiratory Protection Equipment for Tactical and Technical Operations (2023 ed.). Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association. April 24, 2022. ISBN 978-145592947-4.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)

[13] NFPA 1987 Standard on Combination Unit Respirator Systems for Tactical and Technical Operations (2023 ed.). Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association. April 24, 2022. ISBN 978-145592946-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)

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