Group cohesiveness

Last updated

Levels of trust are higher in countries with lower economic inequality. Levels of trust are higher in more equal rich countries (cropped).jpg
Levels of trust are higher in countries with lower economic inequality.

Group cohesiveness, also called group cohesion, social harmony or social cohesion, is the degree or strength of bonds linking members of a social group to one another and to the group as a whole. [1] Although cohesion is a multi-faceted process, it can be broken down into four main components: social relations, task relations, perceived unity, and emotions. [2] Members of strongly cohesive groups are more inclined to participate readily and to stay with the group. [3]

Contents

Definition

From Neo-Latin cohaesio and French cohésion, in physics, cohesion means "the force that unites the molecules of a liquid or of a solid". Thereby, there are different ways to define group cohesion, depending on how researchers conceptualize this concept. However, most researchers define cohesion to be task commitment and interpersonal attraction to the group. [4] [5]

Cohesion can be more specifically defined as the tendency for a group to be in unity while working towards a goal or to satisfy the emotional needs of its members. [5] This definition includes important aspects of cohesiveness, including its multidimensionality, dynamic nature, instrumental basis, and emotional dimension. [5] Its multidimensionality refers to how cohesion is based on many factors. Its dynamic nature refers to how it gradually changes over time in its strength and form from the time a group is formed to when a group is disbanded. Its instrumental basis refers to how people cohere for some purpose, whether it be for a task or for social reasons. Its emotional dimension refers to how cohesion is pleasing to its group members. This definition can be generalized to most groups characterized by the group definition discussed above. These groups include sports teams, work groups, military units, fraternity groups, and social groups. [5] However, it is important to note that other researchers claim that cohesion cannot be generalized across many groups. [6] [7]

Antecedents of cohesion

The bonds between group members do not develop spontaneously. They develop from a number of components such as attraction, coordination, sense of belonging and shared emotions. The components can be known as antecedents of cohesion. [8] Moreover, they also define the nature of cohesion. Each component is explained in-depth below.

Attraction

Festinger and his colleagues in 1950 highly focused on attraction as a force in comparison to any other forces. [9] In a study, they asked the group members to identify all their good friends and calculated the ratio of ingroup choices to outgroup choices. According to Dion in 2000, the greater the ratio, the greater the cohesiveness of the group. [10] Hogg in 1992 and 2001 noted personal attraction is not a group cohesion even though members of cohesive groups like one another. [11] [12] Group cohesion is similar to a type of group-level attraction which, according to Hogg, is known as social attraction. [13] Social attraction is a liking for other group members based on their status as typical group members. Attraction is a basic ingredient for most groups, however, when interpersonal relations between group members intensify, it can transform a conjoined group into a cohesive one.

Sense of belonging

In a cohesive group, individuals tend to fuse together to form a whole. Nonmembers who would encounter a group will be convinced that it is a tightly bonded group. Group members would express their sense of belonging to the group by being loyal to the group, identifying with the group and classifying themselves as members. They would also describe their unity by using terms such as family, us, community, team, etc.

Coordination

It is believed that cohesion is more about the willingness to work together to accomplish a set of goals than the interpersonal relationships between group members. According to Siebold in 2007, task-oriented groups such as flight crews and military squads share a drive to accomplish their goals. [14]

Shared emotions

One of the most obvious features of a cohesive group is a shared positive emotion. Emotional cohesion is a multilevel process as emotions can be collective. For example, a group member may experience emotion when he/she learns that the other group member has been mistreated. An emotion is a collective emotion when all the members of a group experience the same emotional reaction. The intensity of such emotions is high when the members strongly identify with their group. [8]

Factors

The forces that push group members together can be positive (group-based rewards) or negative (things lost upon leaving the group). The main factors that influence group cohesiveness are: members' similarity, [15] [16] group size, [17] entry difficulty, [18] group success [19] [20] and external competition and threats. [21] [22] Often, these factors work through enhancing the identification of individuals with the group they belong to as well as their beliefs of how the group can fulfill their personal needs.

Similarity of group members

Similarity of group members has different influences on group cohesiveness depending on how to define this concept. Lott and Lott who referred in 1965 to interpersonal attraction as group cohesiveness conducted an extensive review on the literature and found that individuals' similarities in background (e.g., race, ethnicity, occupation, age), attitudes, values and personality traits have generally positive association with group cohesiveness. [23]

On the other hand, from the perspective of social attraction as the basis of group cohesiveness, similarity among group members is the cue for individuals to categorize themselves and others into either an ingroup or outgroup. [24] In this perspective, the more prototypical similarity individuals feel between themselves and other ingroup members, the stronger the group cohesiveness will be. [24]

In addition, similar background makes it more likely that members share similar views on various issues, including group objectives, communication methods and the type of desired leadership. In general, higher agreement among members on group rules and norms results in greater trust and less dysfunctional conflict. This, in turn, strengthens both emotional and task cohesiveness. [25]

Entry difficulty

Difficult entry criteria or procedures to a group tend to present it in more exclusive light. The more elite the group is perceived to be, the more prestigious it is to be a member in that group[ citation needed ]. As shown in dissonance studies conducted by Aronson and Mills in 1959 and confirmed by Gerard and Mathewson in 1966, this effect can be due to dissonance reduction (see cognitive dissonance). [26] [27] Dissonance reduction can occur when a person has endured arduous initiation into a group; if some aspects of the group are unpleasant, the person may distort their perception of the group because of the difficulty of entry. [18] Thus, the value of the group increases in the group member's mind.

Group size

Small groups are more cohesive than large groups. This is often caused by social loafing, a theory that says individual members of a group will actually put in less effort, because they believe other members will make up for the slack. It has been found that social loafing is eliminated when group members believe their individual performances are identifiable – much more the case in smaller groups. [28]

In primatology and anthropology, the limits to group size are theorized to accord with Dunbar's number.

Consequences

Group cohesion has been linked to a range of positive and negative consequences. Its consequences on motivation, performance, member satisfaction, member emotional adjustment, and the pressures felt by the member will be examined in the sections below.

Motivation

Cohesion and motivation of team members are key factors that contribute to a company's performance. By adaptability development, self-worth, and personal motivation growth, each member becomes able to feel confident and progress in the team. Social loafing is less frequent when there is cohesion in a team; the motivation of each team member is considerably greater. [4]

Performance

Studies have shown that cohesion can cause performance and that performance can cause cohesion. [29] [30] Most meta-analyses (studies that have summarized the results of many studies) have shown that there is a relationship between cohesion and performance. [4] [5] [31] [32] This is the case even when cohesion is defined in different ways. [4] When cohesion is defined as attraction, it is better correlated with performance. [4] When it is defined as task commitment, it is also correlated with performance, though to a lesser degree than cohesion as attraction. [4] Not enough studies were performed with cohesion defined as group pride. In general, cohesion defined in all these ways was positively related with performance. [4]

However, some groups may have a stronger cohesion-performance relationship than others. Smaller groups have a better cohesion-performance relationship than larger groups. [30] Carron in 2002 found cohesion-performance relationships to be strongest in sports teams and ranked the strength of the relationship in this order (from strongest to weakest): sports teams, military squads, groups that form for a purpose, groups in experimental settings. [33] There is some evidence that cohesion may be more strongly related to performance for groups that have highly interdependent roles than for groups in which members are independent. [32]

In regards to group productivity, having attraction and group pride may not be enough. [4] [32] It is necessary to have task commitment in order to be productive. Furthermore, groups with high performance goals were extremely productive. [5] [34] [35] [36] [37]

However, it is important to note that the link between cohesion and performance can differ depending on the nature of the group that is studied. Some studies that have focused on this relationship have led to divergent results. For example, a study conducted on the link between cohesion and performance in a governmental social service department found a low positive association between these two variables, while a separate study on groups in a Danish military unit found a high negative association between these two variables. [38]

Member satisfaction

Studies have shown that people in cohesive groups have reported more satisfaction than members of a noncohesive group. [39] [40] [41] This is the case across many settings, including industrial, athletic, and educational settings. Members in cohesive groups also are more optimistic and suffer less from social problems than those in non-cohesive groups. [42]

One study involved a team of masons and carpenters working on a housing development. [43] For the first five months, their supervisor formed the groups they were to work in. These groups changed over the course of five months. This was to help the men get to know everyone working on this development project and naturally, likes and dislikes for the people around them emerged. The experimenter then formed cohesive groups by grouping people who liked each other. It was found that the masons and carpenters were more satisfied when they worked in cohesive groups. As quoted from one of the workers "the work is more interesting when you've got a buddy working with you. You certainly like it a lot better anyway." [43] : 183 

Emotional adjustment

People in cohesive groups experience better emotional adjustment. In particular, people experience less anxiety and tension. [44] [45] It was also found that people cope better with stress when they belong to a cohesive group. [46] [47]

One study showed that cohesion as task commitment can improve group decision-making when the group is under stress, more than when it is not under stress. [47] The study studied forty-six three-person teams, all of whom were faced with the task of selecting the best oil drilling sites based on information given to them. The study manipulated whether or not the teams had high cohesion or low cohesion and how urgent the task was to be done. The study found that teams with low cohesion and high urgency performed worse than teams with high cohesion and high urgency. This indicates that cohesion can improve group decision-making in times of stress.

Attachment theory has also asserted that adolescents with behavioral problems do not have close interpersonal relationships or have superficial ones. [48] Many studies have found that an individual without close peer relationships are at a higher risk for emotional adjustment problems currently and later in life. [49]

While people may experience better emotional in cohesive groups, they may also face many demands on their emotions, such as those that result from scapegoating and hostility. [50] [51]

Conformity pressures

People in cohesive groups have greater pressure to conform than people in non-cohesive groups. The theory of groupthink suggests that the pressures hinder the group from critically thinking about the decisions it is making. Giordano in 2003 suggested that this is because people within a group frequently interact with one another and create many opportunities for influence. [52] It is also because a person within a group perceives other members as similar to themselves and is thus more willing to give into conformity pressures. Another reason is that people value the group and are thus, more willing to give into conformity pressures to maintain or enhance their relationships.

Illegal activities have been stemmed from conformity pressures within a group. Haynie in 2001 found that the degree to which a group of friends engaged in illegal activities was a predictor of an individual's participation in the illegal activity. [53] This was even after the individual's prior behavior was controlled for and other controls were set in place. Furthermore, those with friends who all engaged in illegal activities were most likely to engage in illegal activities themselves. Another study found that adolescents with no friends did not engage in as many illegal activities as those with at least one friend. [54] Other studies have found similar results. [55] [56] [57] [58] [59]

Learning

Albert Lott and Bernice Lott investigated how group cohesiveness influenced individual learning. They wanted to test whether learning would be better if children studied with peers they liked than peers they did not like. [60] The degree of member liking was presumed to indicate group cohesiveness. They found that children with a high IQ performed better on learning tests when they learnt in high cohesive groups than low cohesive groups. For children with a low IQ, however, the cohesiveness factor made little difference. Still, there was a slight tendency for low IQ children to perform better in high cohesive groups. The researchers believed that if children worked with other students whom they liked, they would more likely have a greater drive to learn than if they had neutral or negative attitudes towards the group.

Public policy

Social cohesion has become an important theme in British social policy in the period since the disturbances in Britain's Northern mill towns (Oldham, Bradford and Burnley) in the summer of 2001 (see Oldham riots, Bradford riots, Burnley riots). In investigating these, academic Ted Cantle drew heavily on the concept of social cohesion, and the New Labour government (particularly then Home Secretary David Blunkett) in turn widely promoted the notion. As the Runnymede Trust noted in their "The Year of Cohesion" in 2003:

"If there has been a key word added to the Runnymede lexicon in 2002, it is cohesion. A year from publication of the report of the Commission on the Future of Multi-Ethnic Britain, the Cantle, Denham, Clarke, Ouseley and Ritchie reports moved cohesion to the forefront of the UK race debate." [61]

According to the government-commissioned, State of the English Cities thematic reports, there are five different dimensions of social cohesion: material conditions, passive relationships, active relationships, solidarity, inclusion and equality.

On a societal level Albrekt Larsen defines social cohesion 'as the belief—held by citizens in a given nation state—that they share a moral community, which enables them to trust each other'. In a comparative study of the US, UK, Sweden and Denmark he shows that the perceived trustworthiness of fellow citizens is strongly influenced by the level of social inequality and how 'poor' and 'middle classes' are represented in the mass media. [62]

Analysts at the credit rating agency Moody's have also introduced the possibility of adding social cohesion as a formal rating into their sovereign debt indices. [63]

See also

Related Research Articles

Emotional intelligence (EI), also known as emotional quotient (EQ), is the ability to perceive, use, understand, manage, and handle emotions. High emotional intelligence includes emotional recognition of emotions of the self and others, using emotional information to guide thinking and behavior, discerning between and labeling of different feelings, and adjusting emotions to adapt to environments.

Group dynamics is a system of behaviors and psychological processes occurring within a social group, or between social groups. The study of group dynamics can be useful in understanding decision-making behaviour, tracking the spread of diseases in society, creating effective therapy techniques, and following the emergence and popularity of new ideas and technologies. These applications of the field are studied in psychology, sociology, anthropology, political science, epidemiology, education, social work, leadership studies, business and managerial studies, as well as communication studies.

In social psychology, an interpersonal relation describes a social association, connection, or affiliation between two or more persons. It overlaps significantly with the concept of social relations, which are the fundamental unit of analysis within the social sciences. Relations vary in degrees of intimacy, self-disclosure, duration, reciprocity, and power distribution. The main themes or trends of the interpersonal relations are: family, kinship, friendship, love, marriage, business, employment, clubs, neighborhoods, ethical values, support and solidarity. Interpersonal relations may be regulated by law, custom, or mutual agreement, and form the basis of social groups and societies. They appear when people communicate or act with each other within specific social contexts, and they thrive on equitable and reciprocal compromises.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Social group</span> Two or more humans who interact with one another

In the social sciences, a social group is defined as two or more people who interact with one another, share similar characteristics, and collectively have a sense of unity. Regardless, social groups come in a myriad of sizes and varieties. For example, a society can be viewed as a large social group. The system of behaviors and psychological processes occurring within a social group or between social groups is known as group dynamics.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Team building</span> Term for activities used to enhance social relations and define roles within teams

Team building is a collective term for various types of activities used to enhance social relations and define roles within teams, often involving collaborative tasks. It is distinct from team training, which is designed by a combination of business managers, learning and development/OD and an HR Business Partner to improve the efficiency, rather than interpersonal relations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Popularity</span> Concept in sociology

In sociology, popularity is how much a person, idea, place, item or other concept is either liked or accorded status by other people. Liking can be due to reciprocal liking, interpersonal attraction, and similar factors. Social status can be due to dominance, superiority, and similar factors. For example, a kind person may be considered likable and therefore more popular than another person, and a wealthy person may be considered superior and therefore more popular than another person.

A self-serving bias is any cognitive or perceptual process that is distorted by the need to maintain and enhance self-esteem, or the tendency to perceive oneself in an overly favorable manner. It is the belief that individuals tend to ascribe success to their own abilities and efforts, but ascribe failure to external factors. When individuals reject the validity of negative feedback, focus on their strengths and achievements but overlook their faults and failures, or take more credit for their group's work than they give to other members, they are protecting their self-esteem from threat and injury. These cognitive and perceptual tendencies perpetuate illusions and error, but they also serve the self's need for esteem. For example, a student who attributes earning a good grade on an exam to their own intelligence and preparation but attributes earning a poor grade to the teacher's poor teaching ability or unfair test questions might be exhibiting a self-serving bias. Studies have shown that similar attributions are made in various situations, such as the workplace, interpersonal relationships, sports, and consumer decisions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Social exchange theory</span> Generalization theory explaining social behaviour regarding society and economics

Social exchange theory is a sociological and psychological theory that studies the social behavior in the interaction of two parties that implement a cost-benefit analysis to determine risks and benefits. The theory also involves economic relationships—the cost-benefit analysis occurs when each party has goods that the other parties value. Social exchange theory suggests that these calculations occur in romantic relationships, friendships, professional relationships, and ephemeral relationships as simple as exchanging words with a customer at the cash register. Social exchange theory says that if the costs of the relationship are higher than the rewards, such as if a lot of effort or money were put into a relationship and not reciprocated, then the relationship may be terminated or abandoned.

Interpersonal attraction, as a part of social psychology, is the study of the attraction between people which leads to the development of platonic or romantic relationships. It is distinct from perceptions such as physical attractiveness, and involves views of what is and what is not considered beautiful or attractive.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Intimate relationship</span> Physical or emotional intimacy

An intimate relationship is an interpersonal relationship that involves emotional or physical closeness between people and may include sexual intimacy and feelings of romance or love. Intimate relationships are interdependent, and the members of the relationship mutually influence each other. The quality and nature of the relationship depends on the interactions between individuals, and is derived from the unique context and history that builds between people over time. Social and legal institutions such as marriage acknowledge and uphold intimate relationships between people. However, intimate relationships are not necessarily monogamous or sexual, and there is wide social and cultural variability in the norms and practices of intimacy between people.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Teamwork</span> Collaborative effort of a team to achieve a common goal

Teamwork is the collaborative effort of a group to achieve a common goal or to complete a task in an effective and efficient way. Teamwork is seen within the framework of a team, which is a group of interdependent individuals who work together towards a common goal.

Greenberg (1987) introduced the concept of organizational justice with regard to how an employee judges the behavior of the organization and the employee's resulting attitude and behaviour. For example, if a firm makes redundant half of the workers, an employee may feel a sense of injustice with a resulting change in attitude and a drop in productivity.

Group emotion refers to the moods, emotions and dispositional affects of a group of people. It can be seen as either an emotional entity influencing individual members' emotional states or the sum of the individuals' emotional states.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Social identity approach</span> Research and theory pertaining to two intertwined, but distinct, social psychological theories.[

"Social identity approach" is an umbrella term designed to show that there are two methods used by academics to describe certain complex social phenomena- namely the dynamics between groups and individuals. Those two theoretical methods are called social identity theory and self-categorization theory. Experts describe them as two intertwined, but distinct, social psychological theories. The term "social identity approach" arose as an attempt to militate against the tendency to conflate the two theories, as well as the tendency to mistakenly believe one theory to be a component of the other. These theories should be thought of as overlapping. While there are similarities, self categorisation theory has greater explanatory scope and has been investigated in a broader range of empirical conditions. Self-categorization theory can also be thought of as developed to address limitations of social identity theory. Specifically the limited manner in which social identity theory deals with the cognitive processes that underpin the behaviour it describes. Although this term may be useful when contrasting broad social psychological movements, when applying either theory it is thought of as beneficial to distinguish carefully between the two theories in such a way that their specific characteristics can be retained.

Team composition refers to the overall mix of characteristics among people in a team, which is a unit of two or more individuals who interact interdependently to achieve a common objective. It is based on the attributes among individuals that comprise the team, in addition to their main objective.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Astronaut organization in spaceflight missions</span>

Selection, training, cohesion and psychosocial adaptation influence performance and, as such, are relevant factors to consider while preparing for costly, long-duration spaceflight missions in which the performance objectives will be demanding, endurance will be tested and success will be critical.

Interpersonal emotion regulation is the process of changing the emotional experience of one's self or another person through social interaction. It encompasses both intrinsic emotion regulation, in which one attempts to alter their own feelings by recruiting social resources, as well as extrinsic emotion regulation, in which one deliberately attempts to alter the trajectory of other people's feelings.

Functional diversity encapsulates the cognitive resource diversity theory, which is the idea that diversity of cognitive resources promotes creativity and innovation, problem solving capacity, and organizational flexibility. Functionally diverse teams “consist of individuals with a variety of educational and training backgrounds working together." This differs from social diversity, which in accordance with the similarity attraction (homophily) paradigm, is the idea that individuals who are more similar together are able to work together more effectively. There is a degree of ambiguity in academic literature in the definition of functional and social diversity due to many studies in this matter either focusing on one or the other or mashing up the different characteristics. Psychologists, economists, sociologists have conducted numerous studies on diversity within groups to examine the effects on group performance. There are debates about benefits and costs of working in a functionally diverse groups. Milliken and Martins (1996) concluded that “diversity appears to be a double-edged sword”.

Team diversity refers to the differences between individual members of a team that can exist on various dimensions like age, nationality, religious background, functional background or task skills, sexual orientation, and political preferences, among others. Different types of diversity include demographic, personality and functional diversity, and can have positive as well as negative effects on team outcomes. Diversity can impact performance, team member satisfaction or the innovative capacity of a team. According to the Input-Process-Output Model, team diversity is considered an input factor that has effects on the processes as well as on the team outputs of team work.

Epistemic motivation is the desire to develop and maintain a rich and thorough understanding of a situation, utilizing one's beliefs towards knowledge and the process of building knowledge. A learner's motivation towards knowledge as an object influences their knowledge acquisition. In interpersonal relations, epistemic motivation is the desire to process information thoroughly, and thus grasp the meaning behind other people's emotions. In group settings, epistemic motivation can be defined as participants' willingness to expend effort to achieve a thorough, rich, and accurate understanding of the world, including the group task, or decision problem at hand, and the degree to which group members tend to systematically process and disseminate information.

References

  1. ↑ Manca, Anna Rita (2014). "Social Cohesion". Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well-Being Research: 6026–6028. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-0753-5_2739. ISBN   978-94-007-0752-8.
  2. ↑ Forsyth, D.R. (2010). "Components of cohesion". Group Dynamics, 5th Edition. Wadsworth: Cengage Learning. pp. 118–122.
  3. ↑ Dyaram, Lata & T.J. Kamalanabhan (2005). "Unearthed: The Other Side of Group Cohesiveness" (PDF). J. Soc. Sci. 10 (3): 185–190.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Beal, D. J.; Cohen, R.; Burke, M. J. & McLendon, C. L. (2003). "Cohesion and performance in groups: A meta-analytic clarification of construct relation". Journal of Applied Psychology. 88 (6): 989–1004. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.88.6.989. PMID   14640811. S2CID   1342307.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Carron, A.V.; Brawley, L.R. (2000). "Cohesion: Conceptual and measurement issues". Small Group Research. 31 (1): 89–106. doi:10.1177/104649640003100105. S2CID   220367599.
  6. ↑ Cota, A. A.; Dion, K. L. & Evans, C. R. (1993). "A reexamination of the structure of the Gross Cohesiveness Scale". Educational and Psychological Measurement. 53 (2): 499–506. doi:10.1177/0013164493053002019. S2CID   144603957.
  7. ↑ Cota, A.A.; Evans, C.R.; Dion, K.L.; Kilik, L. & Longman, R.S. (1995). "The structure of group cohesion". Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 21 (6): 572–580. doi:10.1177/0146167295216003. S2CID   143923288.
  8. 1 2 Forsyth, D. R. (2009). Group Dynamics (5 ed.). New York: Wadsworth. pp. 119–122. ISBN   978-0-495-59952-4.
  9. ↑ Festinger et al. (1950)
  10. ↑ Dion (2000)
  11. ↑ Hogg (1992)
  12. ↑ Hogg (2001)
  13. ↑ Hogg, M. A.; Hardie, E. A. (1992). "Prototypicality, conformity and depersonalized attraction: A self-categorization analysis of group cohesiveness". British Journal of Social Psychology. 31 (1): 41–56. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8309.1992.tb00954.x.
  14. ↑ Forsyth, D. R. (2009). Group Dynamics (5 ed.). New York: Wadsworth. p. 120. ISBN   978-0-495-59952-4.
  15. ↑ Barnett, William P.; Caldwell, David F.; O'Reilly; Charles A., III (1989). "Work Group Demography, Social Integration, and Turnover" (PDF). Administrative Science Quarterly. 34 (1). Cornell University: 21–37. doi:10.2307/2392984. JSTOR   2392984. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 July 2010.
  16. ↑ Tajfel, Henri (1982). Social Identity and Intergroup Relations. Cambridge University Press. pp. 25–29. ISBN   978-0-521-15365-2.
  17. ↑ Carron A. V. & Spink, K.S. (1995). "The group-size cohesion relationship in minimal groups". Small Group Research. 26 (1): 86–105. doi:10.1177/1046496495261005. S2CID   144462941.
  18. 1 2 Gerard, H. B. & Mathewson, G. C. (1966). "The effect of severity of initiation on liking for a group: A replication". Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 2 (3): 278–287. doi:10.1016/0022-1031(66)90084-9.
  19. ↑ Zaccaro, S. J.; McCoy, M. C. (1988). "The Effects of Task and Interpersonal Cohesiveness on Performance of a Disjunctive Group Task". Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 18 (10): 837–851. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1988.tb01178.x.
  20. ↑ Murphy, Shane M. (1995). Shane M. Murphy (ed.). Sport Psychology Interventions. pp. 154–157.
  21. ↑ William R. Thompson; David P. Rapkin (December 1981). "Collaboration, Consensus, and Détente: The External Threat-Bloc Cohesion Hypothesis". The Journal of Conflict Resolution. 25 (4): 615–637. JSTOR   173912.
  22. ↑ Rempel, Martin W; Fisher, Ronald J. (July 1997). "Perceived Threat, Cohesion, and Group Problem Solving in Intergroup Conflict". International Journal of Conflict Management. 8 (3): 216–234. doi:10.1108/eb022796.
  23. ↑ Lott, A. J. & Lott, B. E. (1965). "Group cohesiveness as interpersonal attraction: a review of relationships with antecedent and consequent variables" (PDF). Psychol. Bull. 64 (4): 259–309. doi:10.1037/h0022386. PMID   5318041.
  24. 1 2 Hogg, M. A. (1993). "Group cohesiveness: A critical review and some new directions". European Review of Social Psychology. 4 (1): 85–111. doi:10.1080/14792779343000031.
  25. ↑ Fonseca, Xavier; Lukosch, Stephan; Brazier, Frances (16 July 2018). "Social cohesion revisited: a new definition and how to characterize it". Innovation: The European Journal of Social Science Research. 32 (2): 231–253. doi: 10.1080/13511610.2018.1497480 . ISSN   1351-1610. S2CID   150284711.
  26. ↑ Aronson and Mills (1959)
  27. ↑ Gerard and Mathewson (1966)
  28. ↑ Feltz, D.L. (1992). "Understanding motivation in sport: a self efficacy perspective". In G.C. Roberts (ed.). Motivation in sport and exercise. pp. 107–128.
  29. ↑ Forsyth, D.R.; Zyzniewski, L.E. & Giammanco, C.A. (2002). "Responsibility diffusion in cooperative collectives". Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 28 (1): 54–65. doi:10.1177/0146167202281005. S2CID   5738250.
  30. 1 2 Mullen, Brian & Carolyn Copper (March 1994). "The Relation Between Group Cohesiveness and Performance: An Integration" (PDF). Psychological Bulletin. 115 (2): 217. doi:10.1177/1046496406287311. S2CID   145115867. Archived from the original on 8 April 2013.
  31. ↑ Oliver, Laurel W. (1988). "The Relationship of Group Cohesion to Group Performance: A Research Integration Attempt". Alexandria, VA: U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, 11, 13. Archived from the original on 8 April 2013.
  32. 1 2 3 Gully, S.M.; Devine, D.J. & Whitney, D.J. (1995). "A meta-analysis of cohesion and performance: Effects of level of analysis and task interdependence". Small Group Research. 26 (6): 497–520. doi:10.1177/1046496412468069. S2CID   220319732.
  33. ↑ Carron (2002)
  34. ↑ Seashore, S.E. (1954). Group cohesiveness in the industrial work group (PDF) (Report). Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 June 2022. Retrieved 29 October 2016.
  35. ↑ Langfred, C.W. (1998). "Is group cohesiveness a double-edged sword? An investigation of the effects of cohesiveness on performance". Small Group Research. 29 (1): 124–143. doi:10.1177/1046496498291005. S2CID   145369559.
  36. ↑ Berkowitz, L. (1954). "Group standards, cohesiveness, and productivity". Human Relations. 7 (4): 509–519. doi:10.1177/001872675400700405. S2CID   145346687.
  37. ↑ Gammage, K.L.; Carron, A.V. & Estabrooks, P.A. (2001). "Team cohesion and individual productivity: The influence of the norm for productivity and the identifiability of individual effort". Small Group Research. 32 (1): 3–18. doi:10.1177/104649640103200101. S2CID   144716627.
  38. ↑ Casey-Campbell, Milly; Martens, Martin (June 2009). "Sticking it all together: A critical assessment of the group cohesion–performance literature". International Journal of Management Reviews. 11 (2): 223–246. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2370.2008.00239.x. S2CID   143448147.
  39. ↑ Hogg, M. A. (1992). The Social Psychology of Group Cohesiveness. New York: New York University Press. ISBN   978-0-7450-1062-5.
  40. ↑ Hackman, J.R. (1992). "Group influences on individuals in organizations". In M.D. Dunnett & L.M. Hough (eds.). Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology. Vol. 3 (2nd ed.). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. pp. 199–267.
  41. ↑ Hare, A.P. (1976). Handbook of small group research (2nd ed.). New York: Free Press.
  42. ↑ Hoyle, R. H. & Crawford, A.M. (1994). "Use of individual-level data to investigate group phenomena: Issues and strategies". Small Group Research. 25 (4): 464–485. doi:10.1177/1046496494254003. S2CID   145779011.
  43. 1 2 Van Zelst, R.H. (1952). "Sociometrically selected work teams increase production". Personnel Psychology. 5 (3): 175–185. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.1952.tb01010.x.
  44. ↑ Myers, A.E. (1962). "Team competition, success, and the adjustment of group members". Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. 65 (5): 325–332. doi:10.1037/h0046513. PMID   13936942.
  45. ↑ Shaw, M.E. & Shaw, L.M. (1962). "Some effects of sociometric grouping upon learning in a second grade classroom". Journal of Social Psychology. 57 (2): 453–458. doi:10.1080/00224545.1962.9710941.
  46. ↑ Bowers, C.A.; Weaver, J.L.; Morgan, B.B. Jr. (1996). "Moderating the performance effects of stressors". In J.E. Driskell; E. Salas (eds.). Stress and human performance. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. pp. 163–192. ISBN   1-134-77182-7.
  47. 1 2 Zaccaro, S.J.; Gualtieri, J. & Minionis, D. (1995). "Task cohesion as a facilitator of team decision making under temporal urgency." Military Psychology, 7". Military Psychology. 7 (2): 77–93. doi:10.1207/s15327876mp0702_3.
  48. ↑ Hirschi T (1969). Causes of Delinquency. Berkeley: Univ. Cal. Press. ISBN   978-0-520-01901-0.
  49. ↑ Bukowski WM, Cillessen AH (1998). Sociometry Then and Now: Building on Six Decades of Measuring Children's Experiences with The Peer Group: New Directions for Child. Jossey-Bass. ISBN   978-0-7879-1247-5.
  50. ↑ French, J.R.P. Jr. (1941). "The disruption and cohesion of groups". Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. 36 (3): 361–377. doi:10.1037/h0057883.
  51. ↑ Pepitone, A. & Reichling, G. (1955). "Group cohesiveness and the expression of hostility". Human Relations. 8 (3): 327–337. doi:10.1177/001872675500800306. S2CID   146649549.
  52. ↑ Giordano, P.C. (2003). "Relationships in adolescence". Annual Review of Sociology. 29 (1): 257–281. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.29.010202.100047.
  53. ↑ Haynie, D.L. (2001). "Delinquent peers revisited: does network structure matter?". American Journal of Sociology. 106 (4): 1013–57. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.492.4909 . doi:10.1086/320298. JSTOR   10.1086/320298. S2CID   144262731.
  54. ↑ Demuth S. (1997). "Understanding the "loner": Delinquency and the peer, family, and school relations of adolescents with no close friendships". Youth & Society. 35 (3): 366–392. doi:10.1177/0044118X03255027. S2CID   143494449. Presented at Am. Soc. Criminol. Meet., Chicago, IL
  55. ↑ Giordano PC, Cernkovich SA, Pugh M (1986). "Friendships and delinquency". Am. J. Sociol. 91 (5): 1170–202. doi:10.1086/228390. JSTOR   2780125. S2CID   144997609.
  56. ↑ Kandel, D.B. (1991). "Friendship networks, intimacy and illicit drug use in young adulthood: a comparison of two competing theories". Criminology. 29 (3): 441–69. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.1991.tb01074.x.
  57. ↑ Pleydon, A.P.; Schner, J.G. (2001). "Female adolescent friendship and delinquent behavior". Adolescence. 36 (142): 189–205. PMID   11572300.
  58. ↑ Dishion, T.J.; Andrews, D.W.; Crosby L. (1995). "Anti-social boys and their friends in early adolescence: relationship characteristics, quality, and interactional process". Child Development. 66 (1): 139–51. doi:10.2307/1131196. JSTOR   1131196. PMID   7497821.
  59. ↑ Wilkinson, D.L. (2001). "Violent events and social identity: specifying the relationship between respect and masculinity in inner-city youth violence". In D.A. Kinney (ed.). Sociological Studies of Children and Youth. Vol. 8. New York: Elsevier. pp. 235–69. doi:10.1016/S1537-4661(01)80011-8. ISBN   978-0-7623-0051-8.
  60. ↑ Bruhn, John (2009). The Group Effect: Social Cohesion & Health Outcomes. Springer. p. 39.
  61. ↑ Berkeley, Rob (2003), The Year of Cohesion (PDF), archived from the original (PDF) on 22 September 2020, retrieved 3 February 2010
  62. ↑ Albrekt Larsen, Christian (2013). The Rise and Fall of Social Cohesion: The Construction and De-construction of Social Trust in the US, UK, Sweden and Denmark. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-968184-6.
  63. ↑ Tett, Gillian (8 January 2010). "Future funding strategies could prove a test of patriotism". Financial Times . London. Retrieved 12 January 2010.

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.