The history of Christianity in Mizoram covers the origin and development of all forms of Christianity in Mizoram since the British occupation at the end of the 19th century until Indian independence. Christianity arrived due to British intervention in tribal warfare, raids of British plantations. The ensuing punitive British military expedition was called the Lushai Expedition of 1871. The subsequent annexation of the erstwhile Lushai Hills to the British Empire opened the gateway for British Christian missions to evangelise the Mizo people.[1][2][3]
By the 1890s, the British Empire occupied all of Lushai Hills. The natives were still under the influence of several tribal chiefdoms, practising Sakhua (Luahai Animism) and lacking a writing system. There was an urgent need to introduce formal education. The solution came in the form of Christian missionaries. The first Christian Missionary to step into the land of Lushai (Mizoram) was William Williams of the Welsh Mission, in 1891. But, he got little or no time to spread the gospel and then died at a young age due to illness. The pioneers were James Herbert Lorrain (who was given a Mizo name, Pu Buanga) and F.W. Savidge (who was named Sap Upa), sent by the Arthington Aborigines Mission in London, who entered Lushai Hills in 1894, the year recorded in Mizoram as the "advent of the Gospel".[4] The Arthington mission was of Baptist persuasion and the two missionaries were of the Baptist Church, along with David Evan Jones (Zosaphluia) from the Welsh Mission. The Welsh Calvinistic Methodist Church (later constituted in India as the Presbyterian Church of India) was established by D.E. Jones in the 1890s at Aizawl and later, the Baptist Church (Baptist Church of Mizoram) at Lunglei by Lorrain and Savidge. The first church was of Baptist church established at Sethlun, Lunglei. The first recorded Christian convert was M. Suaka, chieftain of Durtlang, near Aizawl, and the first people baptised were Khuma and Khara of the Presbyterian Church. Other denominations soon arrived, including Catholic, Salvation Army, United Pentecostal Church, Seventh-day Adventists and others.
Half a century later, the Mizos, by and large, were converted. A variety of indigenous denominations also emerged. The new religion was immensely effective at overturning the traditional culture. Christianity turned into a new culture and ethnic identity.[5][6] Attempts of revival of Mizo culture in the 1960s were objected by the Church. However, in the 1970s, the Church, upon seeing the loss of Mizo culture, began to revive several traditions such as Chapchar Kut. While Krismas is the biggest festival in Mizoram, Chapchar Kut is the second biggest due to these efforts.[7]
By the end of the 20th century, Mizoram became one of the most Christian-populated states in percentage behind Nagaland. The legacy of Christianity has led to the third highest literacy rate as of the 2011 census in India. Demographically, the native population is predominantly Christian.[8][9]
Before the mid-19th century, Mizos were virtually unknown. The British Empire, which had occupied all the surrounding Chittagong and Burma, had little to no interaction with the tribes or their lands. The Mizos then lived in small and isolated clusters of tribal chiefdoms, often raising warfare against each other. Their religious views were dominated by the primal religion of Sakhua, which was influenced by animism. This was accompanied by a unique concept of an afterlife called Pialral. They practised elaborate rituals, including animal sacrifice, and functioned on priests known as Puithiam and medicine men known as Bawlpu.[10][5] The British officers used to subsequently describe these practices as of "irreclaimable savages".[11]
Around 1850, the Mizos started to encroach on the British plantations in the neighbouring Cachar. The raid was most severe in 1871 when a series of attacks resulted in several deaths on both sides, with extensive damage on the plantations. A number of workers and soldiers were taken prisoner, and among them a six-year-old Mary Winchester. Mary Winchester was taken hostage by Bengkhuaia warriors, while other prisoners were executed on the way. To retaliate, the British military organised a punitive expedition named the Lushai Expedition in 1871–1872 in the northern region. General Bourchier led the expedition and, after encountering overwhelming resistance and unfamiliar terrain, rescued Mary Winchester and the other British hostages. Mizo chiefs of the offending tribes made a truce not to make further encroachments.[3][12]
However, the terms of the truce were broken in 1888–1889. In 1889 British military was forced on a second expedition. The Chin-Lushai Expedition of 1889–90 oversaw the subjugation of all the major chiefdoms throughout Mizoram (then called Lushai Hills). The British permanently fortified in major villages such as Aijal (now Aizawl) and Lungleh (now Lunglei). The land came under military occupation and subjected to the British rule.[3][13][14][15]
History
Initial missionary endeavours
Christian missionaries began to visit the Lushai Hills administration as early as 1891. A young Welsh Presbyterian missionary, William Williams, who was working in Khasi Hills happened to meet Mizo prisoners at Sylhet prison in February 1891.[16] As many of the prisoners were Mizo chiefs this raised the idea to visit the newly annexed territory of the Lushai Hills. Williams wrote to the Liverpool office Missionary secretary Josiah Thomas requesting permission to visit the Lushais. In his letter Williams stipulates his desire to spread the gospel to "bring peace amongst them". He further wrote a letter describing the newly annexed territory, which was published in the Welsh newspaper Baner ac Amserau Cymru. Due to the Lushai Rising, the new territory was limited to military personnel and did not permit civilians to enter. Williams formed a party of Christian activists consisting of Benjamin Aitken (Free Church of Scotland), Kasinath (An Assamese preacher) and a Christian Manipuri before gaining entry.[17]
Williams and the party members travelled on rivers preaching the gospel before landing in Changsil, which was two days away from Aizawl. Aitken, who was also a journalist, published an article on the forestry and living conditions of the Lushais in the newspaper "Englishman".[18] On 15 March 1891, Williams and his party met with the first Mizos, where they exchanged tobacco and yarn and handed out scripture to Mizo children. Williams and the party met with Robert Blair McCabe, the political officer of the North Lushai Hills, where the Lushai Rising under Chief Khalkam was narrated to them.[19] After staying in Sairang, Williams went on horseback to Aizawl and crossed the path where Herbert Richard Browne had been ambushed and killed and described the remains of the massacred group. On 20 March 1891, Williams arrived at Fort Aizawl. Williams recorded more observations of Lushai life and handed out biblical iconography. Initial interactions about the gospel resulted in Lushais proclaiming "God is good" and that they identified God as Khuavang.[20] Williams also recorded the number of non-Lushais such as Khasis, Manipuris and Nagas. Each of the party members spoke their respective languages for each of the groups to spread the gospel. Williams wrote to the Welsh Presbyterian Mission of his intention to evangelise the Lushais.[21] However, Williams would die of typhoid on 21 May 1892 and was buried in Shillong.[22]
On closer scrutiny of Williams' activities during his visit, the date of his arrival, 15 March, is declared as the true "Missionary Day" by Mizoram Presbyterian Church in its 89th General Assembly in 2012.[23][24][25]
Robert Arthington, a British philanthropist and Christian patron, taking an interest in the missions among the Lushai tribes, began funding a mission with the help of the BMS or Baptist Mission Society. This led to the establishment of the Arthington Aborigines Mission in 1889 for the evangelisation of tribal people in northeast India. For Mizos he chose J.H. Lorrain and F.W. Savidge of the LondonSouthgate RoadBaptist Church.[26][27] Arthington arranged for missionaries to attend in pairs to uncontacted groups in the British empire to spread the gospel. However, he did not allow missionaries to remain for more than a few years, which limited the learning of local languages. This meant most evangelisation was done via local interpreters.[28]
Arthington Aborigines Mission
The arrival of Christianity and formal education in Mizoram is due to Robert Arthington's efforts in the Arthington Aborigines Mission. Lorrain reached India on 21 January 1891. Lorraine iniitally applied to work as a missionary in Agartala among the Tripuri tribes but his application was rejected. Frederick William Savidge arrived in Bengal in November 1891.[28] The two met at an evangelical campaign at Brahmanbaria (now in Bangladesh) organised by the New Zealand Baptists.[citation needed] They applied to start work in Tripura, but they were rejected once more. Following this, they made a decision to enter the Lushai Hills. They were only allowed to stay at Kasalong village, the nearest possible location. This was due to constant insurgency from the Mizo tribes. After several months of starvation and dysentery, they moved to Darjeeling and finally to Silchar. They applied to work in Tripura but were objected by the king of Tripura.[28] They waited for one whole year in 1893 for fresh permission in Silchar. They remained with the Welsh Persbyterian Mission under Dr. T.J. Jones. While at Silchar, they frequently met Mizo travellers, from whom they started learning their language. Finally, a permit was issued by political officer A.W. Davis to visit Aizawl. They immediately set off on Tlawng River in a canoe on Boxing Day of 1893. They arrived in Aizawl on 11 January 1894.[28] The day is now observed as a public holiday as "Missionary Day" in the state.[4][29][30]
Difficulties were affecting the missionaries from the first day of stepping in Aizawl. There was no local Kukis to carry their luggage boxes to Aizawl which meant the missionaries had to carry their own provisions and sleep on it. Sustenance was difficult to come by and growing their own vegetables was difficult due to flooding, insects and wild goats. Lushai tribesmen also failed to understand the teetotalism of the missionaries.[31] Many staff of colonial institutions, from education to medicine and engineers, often contributed to the spread of Christianity in their personal efforts beyond the roles they were entitled under. British engineers installed musical organs in Welsh churches, government officials contributed and published missionary literature, and missionaries moonlighted themselves as school inspectors, among others.[31]
The missionaries were advised by the administration to not encamp more than one mile outside of Aizawl as the country was considered unsafe due to the previous Lushai Risings. Due to this, under advice from Granville Henry Loch, they made camp at Thingpui Huan Tlang (transl.Tea Garden Hill, now MacDonald Hill) in Zarkawt. Lorrain and Savidge constructed a bamboo house with a thatched roof made from sungrass after being granted permission to trade salt to labourers to work for them.[32]
Despite previous publications on the Mizo language from Thomas Herbert Lewin and Brojo Nath Saha, there was no Mizo alphabet. Lorrain and Savidge immediately worked on creating Mizo alphabets based on the Roman script.[33] Chief Lalsuaka of Durtlang aided the missionaries by sitting with them and teaching them the native language 9-10 in the morning. In the afternoon, Chief Thangphunga would teach. Despite both men teaching and translating scripture, they resisted conversion to Christianity, with lalsuaka becoming Christian later in life. Both chiefs would argue with the early Mizo converts as having authoritative knowledge of the bible from being the first translators.[34] Thangphunga and Lalsuaka translated and published the Gospels of Luke and John, and Acts of the Apostles.[35] The first Mizo language book ever published was a child's primer published by the Assam Government in 1895. Lorrain further published a dictionary of the Lushai language.[33] Lorrain continued to expand on the dictionary until his death in 1940 with a total of 33,000 words recorded. Both missionaries also translated and published several hymns.[34] After only two and half months, Savidge started the first school on 1 April 1894 in Chief Thangphunga's village. It was consisted of one wall and a clay floor. Parents were reluctant to send their children for education and the missionaries used sweets to entice students to attend classes. A Sunday School was formed with services held weekly. During the first four years the missionaries failed to convert or baptise any individuals. Despite suspicion of the missionaries to subjugate the Lushai via the power of words, many came to appreciate high quality medicine possessed by the missionaires.[36]
The Arthington Mission mandated the missionaries to move to new tribes after two to three years and had no intention of establishing churches. Lorrain and Savidge's efforts over five years only led to the baptism of two converts, which eventually convinced Robert Arthington to demand to move to new tribes. Lorrain and Savidge departed from Aizawl for England on 31 December 1897.[1][37] Replacements for Lorraine and Savidge were considered such as Richard Burgess but he was appointed General Secretary of the India Sunday School Union. As a result, Robert Arthington authroised to hand over the responsibility of evangelisation to the Welsh Mission. Robert Arthington died in 1900 and thus the Baptist Missionary Society solely inherited his wealth. Lorrain and Savidge returned to India again as part of the Assam Frontier Pioneer Mission for the Abor people instead of the Lushai Hills.[38]
Calvinistic Methodist Mission
Calvinistic Methodist Church (now properly the Presbyterian Church of Wales) took over the Lushai Hills as its mission field and sent their first missionary Reverend David Evan Jones, who arrived in Aizawl on 31 August 1897, shortly before the Arthington Mission's brief departure.[31] Jones settled in Lorrain and Savidge's house on Thingpui Huan and met with the two missionaries before their departure. The missionaries encouraged Jones to sing hymns which failed but illustrated the attraction of the Lushai people to tunes.[39] When Lorrain and Savidge departed, Jones had only mastered 90 words in the Mizo language. Jones sought to proclaim preaching at Fort Aijal, which possessed a growing population, but was also forbidden to proselytise the soldiery stationed at the fort. Since Mizos were appointed for local government roles, Aizawl became a node for various distant villages to convene, and this would encourage exposure of Christian teachings from one location to the most locations.[40]
Jones struggled with the first few conversions initially. His second and fourth converts were expelled shortly after being received into communion. Jones' sixth and seventh converts left the church in 1904 and 1905. The 1901 census recorded 45 Christians in a population of 82,000. The progress of early missionaries was insignificant, with a slow, successful rate of conversion.[41]
On his birthday on 15 February 1898, Jones opened a school at his bungalow, which was soon used as a place of congregation such as worship and Sunday schools.[42] This organised congregation in 1898 is considered as the origin of church in Mizoram, and the establishment of Mission Veng Kohhran. An entirely separate church building was constructed only in 1913, at a place called Hriangmual bawlhmun (the current location of Mission Veng Church), which was an ancient altar of Sakhua worship.[43] In August 1897, the Welsh Mission had arranged a Khasi Christian, Rai Bahadur and his family from Khasi Hills, to help Jones, therefore the first enlisted congregation consisted of 6 Khasis in addition to Jones and his wife.[44]
First baptism
Two young men named Khuma and Khara became the first fully converted Christians among the Mizos. Khuma had been tutored under Lorrain and Savidge but initially showed no sign of apparent interest in the religion. But in 1898, he became more and more interested, and with his friend Khara, they were baptised by Jones on 25 July 1899. However, the first individuals to be baptised in Lushai Hills were two Khasis, who received baptism in earlier mid-July. Khara was however not fully devoted and soon reverted to the old faith after getting into government service.[45][44][46]
Continuing developments of missionaries
In the colonial environment, missionaries had a reputation for soft power and privilege, which may be extended by entering into the faith. Kuki labourers levied by the British as coolies carrying supplies would claim Christian faith to not work on the sabbath day. Mizo individuals would also profess conversion to Christianity to marry Christian Mizos in the course of traditional nula-rim courtship. Lal Khamliana and other locals in the 1890s learnt writing from the missionaries without signing up as Church attendees, further showing how selective commitments allowed Mizo individuals to claim preferential treatment and opportunities.[31]
Religious conversion however was hampered with the difficulties of translation. The Mizo language was limited in theology and conceptualizations which were expressed in the gospel. Lorraine referred to this initially as "almost a hopeless task." While Mizo communities increasingly listened and participated in recitation of the gospel, they often failed to retain the knowledge imparted or understand the concept being espoused.[31]
Missionaries also struggled with backsliding. This was due to the monotheistic view of the exclusive Christian faith instead of the hybridization of the traditional Mizo religion. By 1900, missionaries changed their doctrine from propagation of knowledge to exclusive conduct of action in correct conduct with the faith. This was achieved with stricter measures of keeping the Sabbath Day, abstaining from rice beer, and feeding ramhuai or evil spirits as appeasement in traditional Mizo belief.[31]
First church building
Although the first congregational worship started in Aizawl, northern Mizoram, the first independent church building was established in southern Mizoram, at a small village called Sethlun, near Lunglei. It was constructed in 1902.[47]
Baptist church
The first ever denomination to come up was the Baptist Church propagated and established by the duo Arthington Missionaries. However, with the coming of the Presbyterian missionaries and their consequent setting up on the harvested fields of the Baptist missionary duo; with endeavour and sincerity, the Welsh mission, in 1901, agreed to divide the Lushai Hills into two separate fields and gave the southern part to Baptist Missionary Society (BMS) of London. BMS had received an inheritance from the will of Robert Arthington, and with that, they could manage the mission field of southern Lushai Hills. Their missionaries, Lorrain and Savidge, of the same Arthington mission workers, arrived in Lunglei in March 1903. They were greeted by some 125 Mizo Christians from Sethlun. They settled at Serkawn, and this Lunglei-annexed village became the eventual headquarters of the Baptist Church in Mizoram.[48]
Lakher Pioneer Mission
The BMS could not still cover the extreme southern corner of Lushai Hills. Lorrain, therefore, urged his younger brother Reginald to start a mission work among the Mara people ("Lakher" to foreigners). Reginald Arthur Lorrain and his wife Maud founded the Lakher Pioneer Mission in London in 1905. They entered Maraland (now includes southern end of Mizoram and adjoining Chin State of Burma) and settled at Serkawr (Saikao) village on 26 September 1907.[49] The Lorrains were refused financial support by missionary societies in England and were entirely financed by a fund-raising group based in Lorrain's home church at Penge. In the 1930s, additional finance came from Bruce Lorrain-Foxall's family and a church in Bridgnorth, Shropshire. With the additional fund few assistant missionaries joined the mission. By 1950 all Maras became converted.[50]
As an independent and self-supported mission, the church had no official name until 1960, when Albert Bruce Lorrain Foxall, the son-in-law of R.A. Lorrain, gave the name "Lakher Independent Evangelical Church" at a conference on 26 March. "Lakher" was replaced by "Mara" at the General Assembly in 1967. After administrative separation of India and Burma in 1947–1948, Maraland was split and the Mara church got divided accordingly. The Indian counterpart became Evangelical Church of Maraland.[51] Mara Independent Evangelical Church then faced administrative break up in 1970, to be reconciled only in 1987. The unified church became Mara Evangelical Church.[52][53]
Influence of Khasi revival
In 1903 church statistics showed that there were 46 church members, of which 11 were Khasis. In January 1904 there was an upsurge of Christian revival among Khasis in Khasi Hills. Six Mizo delegates from Lushai Hills attended the Assembly at Mairang in 1906. They received the revival spirit, and when they returned to Aizawl, they spread the revival spirit among the Mizos. Evangelism then was at an unprecedented pace throughout Lushai Hills, with mass conversions in almost all villages.[44][46] By 1912, the figure of baptised Mizos soared to 3,999. After a year, the number almost doubled (7,423). After the revival of the 1930s, the entire Mizo community was considered Christianised, except for only a few communities.[5]
Influence of Christianity
Education
The first government school in the Lushai Hills was approved by the Chief Commissioner of Assam in 1897 to recruit government workers. A. Porteus, the political commissioner of the South Lushai Hills, saw literacy for the Mizo people as useful for constables, peons and the like. Education was quickly placed into the responsibility of missionaries as British administrators saw this policy as cheap and convenient for cultivating administrative goals. Mission schools were small and were started early in 1898 by Welsh missionary D.E Jones, whose students subsequently opened three more schools in 1901. Graduates of mission schools continued to open rural schools and propagate education as a result. In the South Lushai Hills, Baptist missionaries also focussed on increasing literacy and education for adults by constructing rest houses. Staying in the rest houses was free, alongside lessons and sermons. In the North Lushai Hills, Welsh missionaries tended to create Sunday schools that would teach the alphabet alongside religious education of the Bible.[31]
The opportunities presented to education also allowed for social mobility. While Mizo girls did have mission schools, it mostly consisted of handicrafts and domestic responsibilities which became unpopular for parents. Many families instead sent their sons to associate with missionaries as an opportunity to be granted employment in government jobs. The demand for schooling increased to the point that schools in Aizawl and Lunglei were turning away prospective pupils. High school and tertiary education, however, was out of state in places such as Shillong, limiting the emergence of a new elite class in Mizo society. With the emergence of literate communities, demand for reading increased, which prompted missionaries to publish and print early Mizo language biblical translations, songbooks, manuals and textbooks numbering as far as 143 different volumes.[31]
Other denominations
Salvation Army was formally established on 26 April 1917 by Kawl Khuma. Khuma was a young Christian preacher. He was inspired by a military system of organisation. When he was introduced to a Salvation Army officer Booth-Tucker at Shimla, he was soon converted. He went for formal training at Bombay. In 1917 he became the first commissioned officer in India and started his mission at Aizawl, and called it Chhandama Sipai. India Eastern became a separate command on 1 June 1991 and became a territory in 1993.[54]
Catholicism arrived in Mizoram in 1925. In a brief visit from Chittagong, Father Boulay, CSC, baptised two infants on 6 December 1925 which marked the beginning of Catholicism in the state. However, early opposition arose from Protestants, and as a result, the first Catholic church came up only in 1947. With permission from the Governor of Assam, two Canadian Holy Cross Fathers Fr. George Breen, CSC, and Bro. Gilbert, CSC, arrived in Mizoram on 15 April 1947. They established their headquarters at Kulikawn.[55]
United Pentecostal Church (UPC) emerged as an offshoot of the great spiritual revival in the 1930s, which resulted in many highly spiritualised Mizos seeking a more flexible church, particularly unsatisfied with the strictly Welsh-influenced system. Led by Zakamlova, a separate congregation was organised in Aizawl, but they lacked any denominational support. After several attempts to contact international missions, they established an "Apostolic Church" in 1948 with moral support from the Apostolic Church of Pentecost in the United States. The first church was opened at Lungleng Vawkzawn village in October. However, Zakamlova knew the need to get full affiliation, so he contacted Pentecostal Assemblies of the World worker Roxie A.R. Telie Dover, who was stationed at Bhagalpur. Upon invitation, Dover visited Aizawl on 16 January 1949. Learning their enthusiasm and doctrinal inclination, Dover suggested they join the UPC. After getting government permission, Rev E.L. Scisma inaugurated UPC on 19 February 1950.[56][57]
Seventh-day Adventist arrived in 1946. It was initiated by Lallianzuala Sailo, who first made contact with the Seventh-day Adventist Church at Shillong in Meghalaya in November 1946. OW Lange was the first Adventist missionary to Mizoram.[58]
Indigenous churches
Mass conversion within half a century and frequent bursts of revivals among Mizos led to the births of numerous indigenous denominations of Christianity in Mizoram found nowhere else. With extant and existing types there are more than three dozen independent churches throughout Mizoram.[59] The reason largely being a reciprocal revival of cultural values which were strongly opposed by the founding missions. Some notable ones in terms of stronghold and popularity are:
Lalpa Kohhran Thar (The Lord's New Church), but more famously known as Chana Pawl or Ziona Pawl, was founded by Chana's brother Khuangtuaha in 1942.[60][61] The extraordinary practice is polygamy of the head of the church. Chana had 30 wives. His eldest son and successor (after his death in 1997) Ziona has 39 wives and over 90 children. The church is somewhat a form of pater familias as the head is revered as supreme leader. The church itself holds a world record of the World Record Academy for being the "biggest family in the world" in 2011. They are concentrated at Baktawng village.[62][63][64]
Isua Krista Kohhran (Church of Jesus Christ) was started on 23 May 1970 at Bualpui NG village.[65][66] A rival sister Isua Krista Kohhran Mizoram split out on 6 April 1977. The church is spread all over Mizoram and also in parts of Tripura, Bangladesh and Burma.[67]
Kohhran Thianghlim (Holy Church) was founded by a veterinary doctor L.B. Sailo in 1984. It is headquartered at Chawlhhmun, Aizawl, with its notable Solomon's Temple.[65][66]
Nunna Lalchhungkua was founded by evangelist Rorelliana on 27 September 1978.[66][68]
↑ Champhai (25 September 2009). "Zoluti (Mary Winchester) Chanchin – Ama Ziak"[ZOLUTI (MARY WINCHESTER) CHANCHIN - Her Autobiography] (in Mizo). Kan Lungkham Champhai. Retrieved 20 January 2014.
↑ "MIZORAMA UPC A LO PIAN DAN"[How UPC originated in Mizoram] (in Mizo). United Pentecostal Church of Mizoram. Archived from the original on 17 February 2015. Retrieved 22 January 2014.
↑ "North Mizoram District Chanchin"[History of North Mizoram District] (in Mizo). UPC North East India North Mizoram District. Archived from the original on 3 February 2014. Retrieved 22 January 2014.
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