Immunostimulant

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Immunostimulants, also known as immunostimulators, are substances (drugs and nutrients) that stimulate the immune system usually in a non-specific manner by inducing activation or increasing activity of any of its components. One notable example is the granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor. The goal of this stimulated immune response is usually to help the body have a stronger immune system response in order to improve outcomes in the case of an infection or cancer malignancy. There is also some evidence that immunostimulants may be useful to help decrease severe acute illness related to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or acute infections in the lungs.[ citation needed ]

Contents

Classification

There are two main categories of immunostimulants: [1]

  1. Specific immunostimulants provide antigenic specificity in immune response, such as vaccines or any antigen.
  2. Non-specific immunostimulants act irrespective of antigenic specificity to augment immune response of other antigen or stimulate components of the immune system without antigenic specificity, such as adjuvants and non-specific immunostimulators.

Non-specific

Many endogenous substances are non-specific immunostimulators. For example, female sex hormones are known to stimulate both adaptive [2] and innate immune responses. [3] [4] [5] [6] Some autoimmune diseases such as lupus erythematosus strike women preferentially, and their onset often coincides with puberty. Other hormones appear to regulate the immune system as well, most notably prolactin, growth hormone and vitamin D. [7] [8]

Some publications point towards the effect of deoxycholic acid (DCA) as an immunostimulant [9] [10] [11] of the non-specific immune system, activating its main actors, the macrophages. According to these publications, a sufficient amount of DCA in the human body corresponds to a good immune reaction of the non-specific immune system.[ citation needed ]

Claims made by marketers of various products and alternative health providers, such as chiropractors, homeopaths, and acupuncturists to be able to stimulate or "boost" the immune system generally lack meaningful explanation and evidence of effectiveness. [12]

Uses

Immunostimulants have been recommended to help prevent acute illness related to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and they are sometimes used to treat chronic bronchitis. [13] The evidence in the form of high quality clinical trials to support their use is weak, however, there is some evidence of benefit and they appear to be safe. [14] The most commonly used immunostimulant type for this purpose are bacterial-derived immunostimulants. The goal is to stimulate the person's immune system in order to prevent future infections that may result in an acute episode or exacerbation of COPD. [14]

See also

General

Endogenous immunostimulants

Synthetic immunostimulants

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Immune system</span> Biological system protecting an organism against disease

The immune system is a network of biological systems that protects an organism from diseases. It detects and responds to a wide variety of pathogens, from viruses to parasitic worms, as well as cancer cells and objects such as wood splinters, distinguishing them from the organism's own healthy tissue. Many species have two major subsystems of the immune system. The innate immune system provides a preconfigured response to broad groups of situations and stimuli. The adaptive immune system provides a tailored response to each stimulus by learning to recognize molecules it has previously encountered. Both use molecules and cells to perform their functions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Immunology</span> Branch of medicine studying the immune system

Immunology is a branch of biology and medicine that covers the study of immune systems in all organisms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Inflammation</span> Physical effects resulting from activation of the immune system

Inflammation is part of the biological response of body tissues to harmful stimuli, such as pathogens, damaged cells, or irritants. The five cardinal signs are heat, pain, redness, swelling, and loss of function.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Autoimmunity</span> Immune response against an organisms own healthy cells

In immunology, autoimmunity is the system of immune responses of an organism against its own healthy cells, tissues and other normal body constituents. Any disease resulting from this type of immune response is termed an "autoimmune disease". Prominent examples include celiac disease, diabetes mellitus type 1, Henoch–Schönlein purpura, systemic lupus erythematosus, Sjögren syndrome, eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis, Hashimoto's thyroiditis, Graves' disease, idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura, Addison's disease, rheumatoid arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, polymyositis, dermatomyositis, and multiple sclerosis. Autoimmune diseases are very often treated with steroids.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cytokine</span> Broad and loose category of small proteins important in cell signaling

Cytokines are a broad and loose category of small proteins important in cell signaling. Due to their size, cytokines cannot cross the lipid bilayer of cells to enter the cytoplasm and therefore typically exert their functions by interacting with specific cytokine receptors on the target cell surface. Cytokines have been shown to be involved in autocrine, paracrine and endocrine signaling as immunomodulating agents.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Macrophage</span> Type of white blood cell

Macrophages are a type of white blood cell of the innate immune system that engulf and digest pathogens, such as cancer cells, microbes, cellular debris, and foreign substances, which do not have proteins that are specific to healthy body cells on their surface. This process is called phagocytosis, which acts to defend the host against infection and injury.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">T helper cell</span> Type of immune cell

The T helper cells (Th cells), also known as CD4+ cells or CD4-positive cells, are a type of T cell that play an important role in the adaptive immune system. They aid the activity of other immune cells by releasing cytokines. They are considered essential in B cell antibody class switching, breaking cross-tolerance in dendritic cells, in the activation and growth of cytotoxic T cells, and in maximizing bactericidal activity of phagocytes such as macrophages and neutrophils. CD4+ cells are mature Th cells that express the surface protein CD4. Genetic variation in regulatory elements expressed by CD4+ cells determines susceptibility to a broad class of autoimmune diseases.

Humoral immunity is the aspect of immunity that is mediated by macromolecules – including secreted antibodies, complement proteins, and certain antimicrobial peptides – located in extracellular fluids. Humoral immunity is named so because it involves substances found in the humors, or body fluids. It contrasts with cell-mediated immunity. Humoral immunity is also referred to as antibody-mediated immunity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Granuloma</span> Aggregation of immune cells in response to chronic inflammation

A granuloma is an aggregation of macrophages that forms in response to chronic inflammation. This occurs when the immune system attempts to isolate foreign substances that it is otherwise unable to eliminate. Such substances include infectious organisms including bacteria and fungi, as well as other materials such as foreign objects, keratin, and suture fragments.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cell-mediated immunity</span> Immune response that does not involve antibodies

Cellular immunity, also known as cell-mediated immunity, is an immune response that does not rely on the production of antibodies. Rather, cell-mediated immunity is the activation of phagocytes, antigen-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocytes, and the release of various cytokines in response to an antigen.

Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI), also referred to as psychoendoneuroimmunology (PENI) or psychoneuroendocrinoimmunology (PNEI), is the study of the interaction between psychological processes and the nervous and immune systems of the human body. It is a subfield of psychosomatic medicine. PNI takes an interdisciplinary approach, incorporating psychology, neuroscience, immunology, physiology, genetics, pharmacology, molecular biology, psychiatry, behavioral medicine, infectious diseases, endocrinology, and rheumatology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hypersensitivity pneumonitis</span> Medical condition

Hypersensitivity pneumonitis (HP) or extrinsic allergic alveolitis (EAA) is a syndrome caused by the repetitive inhalation of antigens from the environment in susceptible or sensitized people. Common antigens include molds, bacteria, bird droppings, bird feathers, agricultural dusts, bioaerosols and chemicals from paints or plastics. People affected by this type of lung inflammation (pneumonitis) are commonly exposed to the antigens by their occupations, hobbies, the environment and animals. The inhaled antigens produce a hypersensitivity immune reaction causing inflammation of the airspaces (alveoli) and small airways (bronchioles) within the lung. Hypersensitivity pneumonitis may eventually lead to interstitial lung disease.

Gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT) is a component of the mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) which works in the immune system to protect the body from invasion in the gut.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">CD40 (protein)</span> Mammalian protein found in humans

Cluster of differentiation 40, CD40 is a type I transmembrane protein found on antigen-presenting cells and is required for their activation. The binding of CD154 (CD40L) on TH cells to CD40 activates antigen presenting cells and induces a variety of downstream effects.

Stress hormones are secreted by endocrine glands to modify one's internal environment during the times of stress. By performing various functions such as mobilizing energy sources, increasing heart rate, and downregulating metabolic processes which are not immediately necessary, stress hormones promote the survival of the organism. The secretions of some hormones are also downplayed during stress. Stress hormones include, but are not limited to:

Chemokine ligand 1 (CCL1) is also known as small inducible cytokine A1 and I-309 in humans. CCL1 is a small glycoprotein that belongs to the CC chemokine family.

In immunology, an adjuvant is a substance that increases or modulates the immune response to a vaccine. The word "adjuvant" comes from the Latin word adiuvare, meaning to help or aid. "An immunologic adjuvant is defined as any substance that acts to accelerate, prolong, or enhance antigen-specific immune responses when used in combination with specific vaccine antigens."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bird fancier's lung</span> Type of hypersensitivity pneumonitis

Bird fancier's lung (BFL), also known as bird breeder's lung, is a type of hypersensitivity pneumonitis. It can cause shortness of breath, fever, dry cough, chest pain, anorexia and weight loss, fatigue, and progressive pulmonary fibrosis. It is triggered by exposure to avian proteins present in the dry dust of droppings or feathers of a variety of birds. The lungs become inflamed, with granuloma formation. It mostly affects people who work with birds or own many birds.

Type IV hypersensitivity, in the Gell and Coombs classification of allergic reactions, often called delayed-type hypersensitivity, is a type of hypersensitivity reaction that can take a day or more to develop. Unlike the other types, it is not humoral but rather is a type of cell-mediated response. This response involves the interaction of T cells, monocytes, and macrophages.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Autoimmune disease</span> Disorders of adaptive immune system

An autoimmune disease is a condition that results from an anomalous response of the adaptive immune system, wherein it mistakenly targets and attacks healthy, functioning parts of the body as if they were foreign organisms. It is estimated that there are more than 80 recognized autoimmune diseases, with recent scientific evidence suggesting the existence of potentially more than 100 distinct conditions. Nearly any body part can be involved.

References

  1. ↑ Kumar, S; Gupta P; Sharma S; Kumar D (2011). "A review on immunostimulatory plants". Journal of Chinese Integrative Medicine. 9 (2): 117–128. doi:10.3736/jcim20110201. PMID   21288444.
  2. ↑ Wira, Charles R.; Rodriguez-Garcia, Marta; Patel, Mickey V.; Biswas, Nabanita; Fahey, John V. (2015). "Endocrine Regulation of the Mucosal Immune System in the Female Reproductive Tract". In Mestecky, Jiri; Strober, Warren; Russell, Michael W.; Kelsall, Brian L.; Cheroutre, Hilde; Lambrecht, Bart N. (eds.). Mucosal Immunology (4th ed.). Academic Press. pp. 2141–2156. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-415847-4.00110-5. ISBN   978-0-12-415847-4.
  3. ↑ Lang, Thomas J. (December 2004). "Estrogen as an immunomodulator". Clinical Immunology. 113 (3): 224–230. doi:10.1016/j.clim.2004.05.011. PMID   15507385.
  4. ↑ Moriyama, A.; Shimoya, K; Ogata, I; Kimura, T; Nakamura, T; Wada, H; Ohashi, K; Azuma, C; Saji, F; Murata, Y (1 July 1999). "Secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor (SLPI) concentrations in cervical mucus of women with normal menstrual cycle". Molecular Human Reproduction. 5 (7): 656–661. doi: 10.1093/molehr/5.7.656 . PMID   10381821.
  5. ↑ Cutolo, M; Sulli, A; Capellino, S; Villaggio, B; Montagna, P; Seriolo, B; Straub, R H (September 2004). "Sex hormones influence on the immune system: basic and clinical aspects in autoimmunity". Lupus. 13 (9): 635–638. doi:10.1191/0961203304lu1094oa. PMID   15485092. S2CID   23941507.
  6. ↑ King, A. E.; Critchley, HO; Kelly, RW (1 February 2000). "Presence of secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor in human endometrium and first trimester decidua suggests an antibacterial protective role". Molecular Human Reproduction. 6 (2): 191–196. doi: 10.1093/molehr/6.2.191 . PMID   10655462.
  7. ↑ Dorshkind, Kenneth; Horseman, Nelson D. (1 June 2000). "The Roles of Prolactin, Growth Hormone, Insulin-Like Growth Factor-I, and Thyroid Hormones in Lymphocyte Development and Function: Insights from Genetic Models of Hormone and Hormone Receptor Deficiency". Endocrine Reviews. 21 (3): 292–312. doi: 10.1210/edrv.21.3.0397 . PMID   10857555.
  8. ↑ Nagpal, Sunil; Na, Songqing; Rathnachalam, Radhakrishnan (1 August 2005). "Noncalcemic Actions of Vitamin D Receptor Ligands". Endocrine Reviews. 26 (5): 662–687. doi: 10.1210/er.2004-0002 . PMID   15798098.
  9. ↑ Vlček, B.; Reif, A.; Seidlová, B. (1 May 1971). "Evidence of the Participation of Deoxycholate in Cancer Immunity". Zeitschrift für Naturforschung B. 26 (5): 419–424. doi: 10.1515/znb-1971-0509 . PMID   4398280.
  10. ↑ Vlček, B (1972). "Potentiation of the immune response with DCA". Praktický Lékař (in Czech). 52: 326–330.
  11. ↑ Chyle, M; Chyle, P (1982). "Regulation of the immune response with DCA". Sborník Lékařský (in Czech). 84: 212–218. (English summary)
  12. ↑ Hall, Harriet (July–August 2020). "How You Can Really Boost Your Immune System". Skeptical Inquirer . Amherst, New York: Center for Inquiry. Archived from the original on 21 January 2021. Retrieved 21 January 2021.
  13. ↑ Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease – GOLD (2023). "2023 GOLD Report". Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease - GOLD. Retrieved 27 July 2023.
  14. 1 2 Fraser, Ashley; Poole, Phillippa (2022). Cochrane Airways Group (ed.). "Immunostimulants versus placebo for preventing exacerbations in adults with chronic bronchitis or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2022 (11). doi:10.1002/14651858.CD013343.pub2. PMC   9661939 . PMID   36373977.
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