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Irish syntax is rather different from that of most Indo-European languages, especially because of its VSO word order.
The normal word order in an Irish sentence is:
Only the verb and subject are obligatory; all other parts are optional (unless the primary or finite verb is transitive, in which case a direct object is required). In synthetic verb forms, the verb and subject are united in a single word, so that even one-word sentences are possible, e.g. Tuigim "I understand."
An example sentence:
Labhraíonn
speak.PRES
Mícheál
Mícheál
Gaeilge
Irish
le
with
Cáit
Cáit
go
PTC
minic.
often
Mícheál often speaks Irish with Cáit.
Irish has no words for "yes" and "no". The answer to a question contains a repetition (the same as in Latin) of the verb, either with or without a negative particle. For analytic forms, only the verb is given and the subject is not repeated. If a verb has different dependent and independent forms, the dependent form follows the interrogative or negative particle. The independent form is used where there is no particle.
An
Q
éisteann
listen.PRES
Seán
Seán
lena
to his
mháthair
mother
riamh?
ever
Does Seán ever listen to his mother?"
Éisteann.
listen.PRES
Yes, he does.
*Éisteann
listen.PRES
sé.
3S.M.CNJV
Ní
not
éisteann.
listen.PRES
No, he does not.
*Ní
not
éisteann
listen.PRES
sé.
3S.M.CNJV
Nach
NEG.Q
bhfuil
EXIST.PRES.DEP
tú
2S.CNJV
ag
at
éisteacht
listen.VN
liom?
to me
Aren't you listening to me?
Táim.
EXIST.1S.PRES
Yes, I am.
Nílim.
EXIST.1S.PRES.NEG
No, I'm not.
In a command the imperative mood is used, and no subject is given.
Tabhair
give.2SG.IMPR
dúinn
to us
dhá
two
ghloine
glasses
fuisce
whiskey.GEN
le do thoil.
please
Please give us two glasses of whiskey.
To express a negative command, the particle ná is used. This particle, which can be roughly translated "don't", causes neither eclipsis nor lenition, and attaches h to a following vowel.
Ná
don't
cailligí
lose.2PL.IMP
an
the
t-airgead.
money
Don't lose the money!
Ná
don't
habair
tell.2SG.IMP
leo
to them
é.
3S.M.DSJV
Don't tell it to them!
Ná
don't
téimis
go.1PL.IMP
abhaile.
home
Let's not go home!
A progressive aspect can be formed by connecting the verbal noun to the existential verb with the progressive particle ag.
Tá
EXIST.PRES
Mícheál
Mícheál
ag
at
labhairt
speak.VN
Gaeilge
Irish
le
with
Cáit
Cáit
anois.
now
Mícheál is speaking Irish with Cáit now.
The object of a verbal noun is in the genitive, if it is definite.
Tá
EXIST.PRES
Séamas
Séamas
ag
at
léamh
read.VN
an
the
nuachtáin.
newspaper.GEN
Séamas is reading the newspaper.
If a nonfinite clause forms the complement of the verb, the verbal noun stands alone (without a preposition) in the clause.
D'éirigh
be-successful.PRET
liom
with me
breith
catch.VN
ar
on
an
the
liathróid.
ball
I succeeded in catching the ball.
The direct object of a verbal noun complement precedes the verbal noun; the leniting particle a "to" is placed between them. Other complements follow.
Tá
EXIST.PRES
brath
intention
agam
at me
an
the
scian
knife
a
to
chur
put.VN
go
PTC
cúramach
careful
ar
on
an
the
mbord.
table
I intend to place the knife carefully on the table.
Generally, an object pronoun or a conjugated preposition stands at the end of a sentence in Irish. Compare this sentence:
D'inis
tell.PRET
sé
3S.M.CNJV
an
the
scéal
story
do
to
Bhríd
Bríd
inné.
yesterday
He told the story to Bríd yesterday.
with the two following sentences:
D'inis
tell.PRET
sé
3S.M.CNJV
do
to
Bhríd
Bríd
inné
yesterday
é.
3S.M.DSJV
He told it to Bríd yesterday.
D'inis
tell.PRET
sé
3S.M.CNJV
an
the
scéal
story
inné
yesterday
di
to her
He told her the story yesterday.
Irish commonly uses the impersonal form (also called the autonomous form) instead of the passive voice.
Buaileadh
beat.IMPRS.PRET
an
the
madra.
dog
Someone beat the dog/The dog was beaten.
In the perfect, the passive voice is formed by using the passive participle with the existential verb.
Tá
EXIST.PRES
an
the
fhuinneog
window
briste
broken
(ag
(by
mo
my
dheartháir).
brother)
The window has been broken (by my brother).
Some verbs describing the state or condition of a person form a progressive present with the existential verb plus 'in (my, your, his etc.)' plus the verbal noun.
Tá
EXIST.PRES
mé
1S
i
in
mo
my
chodladh.
sleep.VN
I'm asleep.
An
Q
bhfuil
EXIST.PRES.DEP
tú
2S.CNJV
i
in
do
your.SG
chónaí
live.VN
sa
in the
Ghearmáin?
Germany
Do you live in Germany?
Irish, like Spanish and other languages, has two forms that can express the English verb "to be". The two forms perform different grammatical functions.
The existential verb is bí. It is an irregular verb; see Irish verbs for its conjugation.
This verb expresses the absolute existence of something, its condition, or its location. When accompanied by the adverb ann "there", it means "exist" or "there is/are". Otherwise, the verb is complemented by an adjective, an adverb or a prepositional phrase.
Tá
EXIST.PRES
Dia
God
ann.
there
God exists; There is a God.
Tá
EXIST.PRES
an
the
bosca
box
folamh.
empty
The box is empty.
Tá
EXIST.PRES
na
the.PL
húlla
apple.PL
ar
on
an
the
mbord.
table
The apples are on the table.
A noun phrase alone cannot form the predicate of the existential verb. Instead, the noun complement is preceded by a form meaning "in my, in your, in his", etc.
Tá
EXIST.PRES
Seán
Seán
ina
in his
dhochtúir.
doctor
Seán is a doctor.
The Irish copula is not a verb but a particle, used to express a definition or identification. It may be complemented by a noun, a pronoun, an adjective, or a topicalized phrase. Because it is not a verb, it does not inflect for person or number, and pronouns appear in the disjunctive form.
The copula, which has the realis form is, is used for identification and definition:
Definition: X is a Y. Here, the word order is "Is-Y-(pronoun)-X". X is a definite noun or a pronoun.
Is
COP.PRES
fear
man
é.
3S.DSJV
It/he is a man.
Is
COP.PRES
Sasanaigh
English-person.PL
iad.
3P.DSJV
They are English.
Identification: X is the Y. Here the word order is "Is-pronoun-X-Y", or "Is-pronoun-Y-X". There must always be a pronoun between a definite noun and the copula. It would be wrong to say *Is Seán an múinteoir, which would mean "The teacher is a Seán".
Is
COP.PRES
é
3S.M.DSJV
Seán
Seán
an
the
múinteoir.
teacher
Seán is the teacher.
To identify a first or second person pronoun with a definite noun, it is usual to use the longer form of the personal pronoun, which comes immediately after the copula:
The long form of the personal pronoun is very emphatic and stressed and often ejects the copula entirely. Thus, in the previous four examples, it is possible to leave out the copula, which will then be understood:
If a third-person pronoun with a definite noun is identified, the same construction may be used:
However, in the third person, that is perceived to be much more emphatic than in the first and second persons. The usual way to say "He is the teacher" is
in which the definite noun is flanked by two personal pronouns agreeing with it in gender and number.
When saying "this is", or "that is", seo and sin are used, in which case is is usually dropped:
One can also add "that is in him/her/it", especially when an adjective is used if one wants to emphasise the quality:
Is
COP.PRES
fear
man
láidir
strong
atá
EXIST.REL.PRES
ann.
in him
He's a strong man.
Is
COP.PRES
cailín
girl
álainn
beautiful
atá
EXIST.REL.PRES
inti.
in her
She's a beautiful girl.
That sometimes appears in Hiberno-English, translated literally as "that is in it" or as "so it is".
The present tense of the copula can be used for the future:
The past tense of the copula can be used for the conditional:
The forms is and ba are not used after preverbal particles.
If the predicate is definite, the copula is followed by a disjunctive personal pronoun, which may be repeated at the end of the sentence.
If the predicate is indefinite, it follows the copula directly, with the disjunctive pronoun and subject coming at the end.
The copula can also be used to stress an adjective, as in the following instance:
Is
COP.PRES
breá
nice
an
the
lá
day
é.
3S.M.DSJV
It's a nice day.
Topicalization in Irish is formed by clefting: by fronting the topicalized element as the predicate of the copula, while the rest of the sentence becomes a relative clause. Compare Dúirt mise é "I said it" with Is mise a dúirt é "I said it."
There are other set idiomatic phrases using the copula, as seen in the following examples. Here the predicate consists mostly of either a prepositional phrase or an adjective.
There are also the following constructions:
Is
COP.PRES
deacair
difficult
an
the
abairt
sentence
seo
this
a
to
thuiscint.
understand-VN
This sentence is hard to understand.
Is
COP.PRES
le
with
Cáit
Cáit
an
the
gluaisteán.
car
The car belongs to Cáit.
Is
COP.PRES
as
from
Baile Átha Cliath
Dublin
Máire.
Máire
Máire is from Dublin.
Since the copula cannot stand alone, the answer must contain either a part of the predicate or a pronoun, both of which follow the copula.
In all dialects, the copula is may be omitted if the predicate is a noun. (Ba cannot be deleted.) If is is omitted, the following é, í, iad preceding the noun is omitted as well.
Both the existential verb and the copula may take a nominal predicate, but the two constructions have slightly different meanings: Is dochtúir é Seán sounds more permanent: it represents something absolute about Seán; it is a permanent characteristic of Seán that he is a doctor. That is known as an individual-level predicate. In the sentence Tá Seán ina dhochtúir, one says rather that Seán performs the job of a doctor, he is a doctor at the moment, or he has become a doctor. That is known as a stage-level predicate.
Most complementizers (subordinating conjunctions) in Irish cause eclipsis and require the dependent form of irregular verbs. The word order in an Irish subordinate clause is the same as in a main clause. The types of subordination discussed here are: complementation, relative clauses, and wh-questions (which are formed as a kind of relative clause in Irish).
The subordinate clause is a part of the main clause in a purely syntactic complementation. In Irish it is introduced by go "that" in the positive and nach "that... not" in the negative.
Deir
say.PRES
sé
3S.M.CNJV
go
that
bhfuil
EXIST.PRES.DEP
deifir
hurry
air.
upon him
He says that he's in a hurry.
Chruthaigh
prove.PRET
sé
3S.M.CNJV
nach
that.NEG
raibh
EXIST.PRET.DEP
taibhse
ghost
ann.
there
He proved that there was no ghost.
Other examples of complex sentences using complementizers:
A conditional clause gives the condition under which something will happen. In Irish there are two kinds of conditional clauses, depending on the plausibility of the condition. The particle má introduces a conditional clause that is plausible, also called a realis condition . Má causes lenition and takes the independent form of irregular verbs. Its negated form is mura and causes eclipsis. Preceding the preterite it is murar and causes lenition.
If the condition of the clause is hypothetical, also called an irrealis condition or counterfactual conditional , the word dá is used, which causes eclipsis and takes the dependent form of irregular verbs. The negated equivalent is either mura or murach go, meaning roughly "if it were not the case that...". The verb in both clauses is in the conditional.
Other examples of conditionals are:
There are two kinds of relative clauses in Irish: direct and indirect. Direct relative clauses begin with the leniting relativizer a and the independent form of an irregular verb is used. The direct relative is used when the relative pronoun is the subject or direct object of its clause.
The direct relative is also used in topicalizations, e.g.:
The direct relative is also used after the word uair "time":
Indirect relative clauses begin with the eclipsing relativizer a (in the preterite with leniting ar); the dependent form of an irregular verb is used. The indirect relative is used to signify a genitive or the object of a preposition. In these cases, there is a resumptive pronoun in the relative clause.
The negative form of a relative clause, direct or indirect, is formed with the eclipsing relativizer nach, or, before the preterite, with the leniting relativizer nár.
Sometimes a direct relative clause can be ambiguous in meaning, leaving unclear if the relative is accusative or nominative:
If the accusative reading is intended, one could use an indirect relative with a resumptive pronoun:
A wh-question begins with a word such as "who, what, how, when, where, why" etc. In Irish, such questions are constructed as relative clauses, in that they can be constructed as either direct or indirect.
Questions with "who, what, how many, which, when" are constructed as direct relative clauses.
Questions with prepositions (i.e. "on what?, with whom?") and questions with "why?" and "where?" are constructed as indirect relative clauses.
There are two words for "how" in Irish: the word conas takes the direct relative clause, the phrase cén chaoi takes the indirect.
Some complements in Irish take the form of a relative, in that they end in the relative particle a; both direct and indirect relative are found.
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In linguistics, a copula /‘kɑpjələ/ is a word or phrase that links the subject of a sentence to a subject complement, such as the word is in the sentence "The sky is blue" or the phrase was not being in the sentence "It was not being cooperative." The word copula derives from the Latin noun for a "link" or "tie" that connects two different things.
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