Lexicography evolved in order to serve one of two needs i.e. in order to explain in a simple way difficult words and expressions or in order to explain the words and expressions of one language in another. In this case we can trace the tradition of lexicography in Irish back to the 8th century.
Around 750 A.D. an anonymous Irish student studying in Würzburg in Germany, wrote down explanations in his native tongue on the Latin text of the Epistles of Saint Paul as an aid to help him understand the Latin. The text and explanations still survive in Würzburg. This is the earliest known attempt at bilingual lexicography in Irish. Lexicography of various kinds has been practised in Irish from that time down to our own day – a journey of about 1,250 years.
The first dictionaries compiled in Irish independent of an accompanying text are described as Glossaries. It is most likely that these were put together from glosses already appended to other texts. Sanas Cormaic (Cormac's Glossary) is the most famous of these and was compiled over one thousand years ago. It was compiled by Cormac Mac Cuileannáin, the Bishop of Cashel and king of Munster, who died in 908. It is an encyclopaedic dictionary containing simple synonymous explanations in Irish or Latin of the headwords. In some cases he attempts to give the etymology of the words and in others he concentrates on an encyclopaedic entry. It is held to be the first linguistic dictionary in any of the non-classical languages of Europe.
Mícheál Ó Cléirigh was a Franciscan and head of the Four Masters. He compiled another famous glossary called ‘Sanasán Mhichíl Uí Chléirigh’ (Michael O'Clery's Glossary). This glossary was printed in 1643 during the author's lifetime. These two glossaries and others are valuable for the etymological and encyclopaedic information contained in them. They are of equal value for their explanations of difficult words and because they contain words for which there is no evidence to be had apart from the spoken language of the present day.
In 1662 Richard Plunkett, a Franciscan living in Trim, Co. Meath, finished the first great bilingual dictionary containing the Irish language, his Latin-Irish Dictionary. The manuscript was never published and is now held in Marsh's Library in Dublin. Despite this fact, subsequent lexicographers made copious use of this work. [1]
Edward Lhuyd, a Welsh speaker was one of the first to make good use of Plunkett's dictionary, in the dictionary of multilingual lists (encompassing the Celtic languages, Latin and English) which he published in 1707. During the 18th century two major English-Irish dictionaries and two Irish-English dictionaries were compiled. In Paris in 1732 the first comprehensive English-Irish dictionary [3] was published and in the same city in 1768 a similar Irish-English work was published. Conchubhar Ó Beaglaoich, a priest and private tutor in Paris and Aodh Buí Mac Cruitín, a scholar from Co. Clare compiled the 1732 dictionary. [4] Seán Ó Briain, bishop of Cloyne and Ross was the compiler or the 1768 dictionary. [5] Francis Walsh and Tadhg Ó Neachtain’s Irish-English Dictionary (1739) and Crab's English-Irish dictionary remained in manuscript form and were never published. [6]
During the 19th century three English-Irish dictionaries and the same number of Irish-English dictionaries were compiled. Four of these were published, Tadhg Ó Coinnialláin’s English-Irish dictionary(1814), that produced by Domhnall Ó Foghludha (1855), Edward O'Reilly’s Irish-English dictionary (1817, 1821, 1864) [7] and that compiled by Thomas de Vere Coneys (1849). Clareman, Peadar Ó Conaill’s Irish-English dictionary [8] and Robert MacAdam’s English-Irish Dictionary (c. 1850) remain in manuscript form. MacAdam was a business man from Belfast, a Protestant and Irish revivalist.
The 20th century witnessed the compilation of the first major Irish-Irish dictionary for centuries: Croidhe Cainnte Chiarraighe, by Seán Óg Mac Murchadha Caomhánach (aka Seán a' Chóta). Although originally intended to comprise mainly words particular to the Dingle dialect of Irish, it quickly outgrew its specification, swelling to over 60,000 headwords and over 2.2 million words in total. While this greatly added to its usefulness as a comprehensive dictionary for speakers of the Irish language, in a sad irony it was also the costs associated with this size that eventually resulted in its not being published during Seán a' Chóta's lifetime. It was over seventy five years after its completion before it was made accessible by the general public [9] thanks to the work of Dr Tracey Ní Mhaonaigh of Maynooth University, who transcribed it.
During the 20th century four English-Irish dictionaries were published and three major Irish-English dictionaries. The English-Irish dictionaries were produced by Edmund Fournier d’Albe (1903), Timothy O'Neill Lane (1904, 1918), [10] Lambert McKenna (1935) and Tomás de Bhaldraithe (1959). The Irish-English dictionaries included Dinneen’s [11] famous work (1904, [12] 1927) [13] also Contributions to a Dictionary of the Irish Language (1913–76) published by the Royal Irish Academy, which was a reference work of Old and Middle Irish, and Ó Dónaill’s Foclóir Gaeilge-Béarla (1977). [14] A considerable number of terminological dictionaries, dictionaries relating to specific dialects, dictionaries for school use and pocket dictionaries were also published in the last century. Two dictionaries were also produced containing Irish and a language other than English for the first time since Plunkett's dictionary in the 17th century. These were Risteárd de Hae’s Irish-French dictionary (1952) [15] and the Irish-Breton dictionary compiled by Loeiz Andouard agus Éamon Ó Ciosáin (1987). [16]
The diversification of Irish lexicography has continued since the turn of the century, with an Irish-Spanish dictionary published by Coiscéim, [17] an Irish-German dictionary published by Buske [18] and an online Irish-Russian dictionary has been created by Alexey Shibakov, [19] bringing the number of major European languages provided for to five. Meanwhile, of the other living Celtic languages the only one without an Irish dictionary is now Cornish thanks to the work of Kevin Scannell in creating dictionaries [20] [21] for the other Gaelic languages and of Joe Mitchell who has created a Welsh-Irish dictionary. [22]
The internet has notably become a far greater medium for dictionaries since the turn of the century. Ó Dónaill and de Bhaldraithe's bilingual dictionaries and the monolingual Foclóir Beag can be searched for free online [23] and Foras na Gaeilge's New English-Irish Dictionary [24] is available exclusively electronically, as is the national terminology database provided by Fiontar in DCU. [25] Intergaelic, [26] a resource for speakers of Gaelic languages is provided by Kevin Scannell and Michal Boleslav Měchura. The Royal Irish Academy also republished their comprehensive dictionary of early Irish online as the eDIL [27] and work is ongoing on a comprehensive historical dictionary of Irish covering the period 1600-2000. [28]
Those great lexicographers who practiced lexicography in Irish were for the most part learned men who had a particular love for Irish. The precise methodologies employed by most of them remain unknown to us. They had no hesitancy, however, in borrowing from dictionaries that already existed. This point has been skillfully shown with no little humour in many articles written by one of the great lexicographers of the 20th century, Tomás de Bhaldraithe. In general their research and use of pre-existing sources greatly increased the value and scope of their work. They sometimes erred in selection of specific word versions which they gleaned from their sources, however. On other occasions one cannot be sure that it is not without a degree of humour that they chose to include certain comical versions. It is not clear whether ignorance or wit was responsible for the following examples from some of the aforementioned works – “giolla earbuill, a page or train-bearer”; “lachaim, I duck or dive”; “calaoiseach, a juggler”; “bol, a poet; a cow”. When in future appointing a dictionary editor perhaps the job description should state that a “siollaire” is required – “siollaire, a scanner of every word, a carper, a dictator; a beater, striker, smiter, a dexterous harper also a good singer; siollaire mná, a strong comely woman” – those are the descriptions found in some of the dictionaries for a person deemed a “siollaire”. It will be interesting to note how the word “siollaire will be employed by those lexicographers who come after us. In any case the journey of over one thousand two hundred years travelled by Irish lexicography from the glossist of Würzburg to the new Foras na Gaeilge dictionary is one of which we can be justifiably proud. [29]
A clan is a group of people united by actual or perceived kinship and descent. Even if lineage details are unknown, clans may claim descent from founding member or apical ancestor. Clans, in indigenous societies, tend to be endogamous, meaning that their members can marry one another. Clans preceded more centralized forms of community organization and government, and exist in every country. Members may identify with a coat of arms or other symbol to show that they are an independent clan. Kinship-based groups may also have a symbolic ancestor, whereby the clan shares a "stipulated" common ancestor who serves as a symbol of the clan's unity. When this "ancestor" is non-human - frequently an animal - it is referred to as a totem.
Irish orthography has evolved over many centuries, since Old Irish was first written down in the Latin alphabet in about the 8th century AD. Prior to that, Primitive Irish was written in Ogham. Irish orthography is mainly based on etymological considerations, although a spelling reform in the mid-20th century simplified the relationship between spelling and pronunciation somewhat.
Craic or crack is a term for news, gossip, fun, entertainment, and enjoyable conversation, particularly prominent in Ireland. It is often used with the definite article – the craic – as in the expression "What's the craic?". The word has an unusual history; the Scots and English crack was borrowed into Irish as craic in the mid-20th century and the Irish spelling was then reborrowed into English. Under either spelling, the term has attracted popularity and significance in Ireland.
Puirt à beul is a traditional form of song native to Scotland that sets Gaelic lyrics to instrumental tune melodies. Historically, they were used to accompany dancing in the absence of instruments and to transmit instrumental tunes orally.
Patrick Stephen Dinneen was an Irish lexicographer and historian, and a leading figure in the Gaelic revival.
Dr. Caoilfhionn Nic Pháidín is an author and academic, previously of Dublin City University, Dublin, Ireland. She served on the government agency Coimisiún na Gaeltachta from 2000 to 2002. She is also a co-founder of the Irish language publishing firm Cois Life.
Tomás de Bhaldraithe was an Irish language scholar and lexicographer born Thomas MacDonagh Waldron in Limerick. He is best known for his English-Irish Dictionary, published in 1959.
An Gúm was an Irish state company tasked with the publication of Irish literature, especially educational materials. The agency is now part of Foras na Gaeilge. Its mission statement is "To produce publications and resources in support of Irish-medium education and of the use of Irish in general." It is the largest publisher of books in Irish in the country. Seosamh Ó Murchú is the current Senior Editor.
Sláinte means "health" in Irish and Scottish Gaelic. It is commonly used as a drinking toast in Ireland, Scotland and the Isle of Man.
A boreen or bohereen is a country lane, or narrow, frequently unpaved, rural road in Ireland.
Niall Ó Dónaill was an Irish language lexicographer from Ailt an Eidhinn, Loughanure, County Donegal. He was the olderst of the six children of Tarlach Ó Dónaill and Éilis Nic Ruairí from Grial, Loughanure. They had a little land and a few cows. His father would spend June to November working in Scotland and died when Niall Ó Dónaill was 13 years old. Ó Dónaill himself would spend summers working in the tunnels in Scotland.
The Foclóir Stairiúil na Nua-Ghaeilge project was started in 1976 with the aim of creating a historical dictionary for Modern Irish. The dictionary will cover a period from 1600 to the present day. In contrast to most existing Irish dictionaries, this will be an Irish–Irish dictionary. Most others, including the highly regarded de Bhaldraithe and Ó Dónaill dictionaries, are Irish–English bilingual dictionaries.
Órla, Orlaith, Orla or Orlagh is a female given name of Celtic origin. The root form of the name is Órfhlaith, interpretable as "golden princess" as it combines the Gaelic elements ór ("gold") and fhlaith, its full feminine form being banfhlaith.
Bishop John O'Brien was an Irish bishop of the Roman Catholic Diocese Cork and Cloyne. He was also appointed as the vicar general of Cork, Cloyne and Ross. He is best remembered as the author of one of the earliest Irish-English dictionaries.
Breandán Mac Cnáimhsí, Irish newsreader and translator.
Máirtín Ó Murchú is an Irish professor of Celtic studies and emeritus professor of the Dublin Institute of Advanced Studies. He previously also was Director of the School of Celtic at DIAS and a Professor of Irish at Trinity College Dublin.
An Caighdeán Oifigiúil, often shortened to An Caighdeán, is the variety of the Irish language that is used as the standard or state norm for the spelling and grammar of the language and is used in official publications and taught in most schools in the Republic of Ireland. The standard is based on the three Gaeltacht dialects: Connacht Irish, Munster Irish, Ulster Irish. In Northern Ireland and County Donegal, the Ulster dialect is used extensively alongside the standard form, as the spoken language in Primary and Secondary Schools.
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