This is a list of heads of state of Germany.
Germany was ruled by monarchs from the beginning of division of the Frankish Empire in August 843 to the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in August 1806. [1] [2] [3] During most of 19th century, independent German principalities were organized into various confederations, such as the Confederation of the Rhine dominated by Napoleon (1806-1913) and the German Confederation created by the Congress of Vienna (1814-1866). The Prussian-led North German Confederation (1866-1871) subsequently morphed into a modern nation state, the German Reich, which was ruled by emperors from 1871 to the collapse of all German monarchies in 1918.
The President of Germany replaced the monarch in 1919. Chancellor Adolf Hitler assumed the duties of head of state as Führer and Chancellor from 1934 until his suicide in April 1945. In 1949, Germany was divided into two states. The Federal President, head of state of West Germany, became head of state for all of Germany following German reunification in 1990.
Seal/Portrait | Name | House | King | Emperor | Ended | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
![]() | Louis the German Ludwig der Deutsche | Carolingian | 11 August 843 | — | 23 August 876 | Son of Emperor Louis the Pious and grandson of Charlemagne |
![]() | Carloman (Karlmann) | Carolingian | 28 August 876 | — | 22 March 880 | Son of Louis the German; ruled in Bavaria; from 877, also King of Italy |
| Louis the Younger (Ludwig III. der Jüngere) | Carolingian | 28 August 876 | — | 20 January 882 | Son of Louis the German; ruled in East Francia, Saxony; from 880, also Bavaria |
![]() | Charles the Fat (Karl III. der Dicke) | Carolingian | 28 August 876 | 12 February 881 | 11 November 887 | Son of Louis the German; ruled in Alemannia, Raetia, from 882 in the entire Eastern Kingdom; from 879, also King of Italy |
![]() | Arnulf of Carinthia (Arnulf von Kärnten) | Carolingian | 30 November 887 | 25 April 896 | 8 December 899 | Illegitimate son of Carloman |
![]() | Louis the Child (Ludwig IV. das Kind) | Carolingian | 21 January 900 | — | 20/24 September 911 | Son of Arnulf of Carinthia |
Seal | Name | House | King | Emperor | Ended | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
![]() | Conrad I (Konrad I.) | Conradine (Franconian) | 10 November 911 | — | 23 December 918 | Elected by the nobility |
Seal | Name | House | King | Emperor | Ended | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Henry I the Fowler (Heinrich I. der Vogler) | Liudolfing (Saxon) | 23 April 919 | — | 2 July 936 | Elected by the nobility |
![]() | Arnulf the Bad (Arnulf der Böse, Herzog von Bayern) | Luitpolding (Bavarian) | 919 | — | 921 | Rival king to Henry I |
The title "King of the Romans", used under the Holy Roman Empire, is (from this point onwards) considered equivalent to King of Germany. A king was chosen by the German electors and would then proceed to Rome to be crowned emperor by the pope.
Image | Name | House | King | Emperor | Ended | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Otto I the Great (Otto I. der Große) | Ottonian | 7 August 936 | 2 February 962 | 7 May 973 | Son of Henry I; first king crowned in Aachen Cathedral since Lothair I; crowned as Otto by the grace of God King; [4] crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 961 |
![]() | Otto II the Red (Otto II.) | Ottonian | 26 May 961 | 25 December 967 | 7 December 983 | Son of Otto I; Otto by the grace of God King [4] under his father 961–973; also crowned Emperor in his father's lifetime |
![]() | Otto III (Otto III.) | Ottonian | 25 December 983 | 21 May 996 | 21 January 1002 | Son of Otto II; Otto by the grace of God King [4] |
![]() | Henry II (Heinrich II. der Heilige) | Ottonian | 7 June 1002 | 26 April 1014 | 13 July 1024 | Great-grandson of Henry I |
Image | Name | House | King | Emperor | Ended | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
![]() | Conrad II (Konrad II.) | Salian (Frankish) | 8 September 1024 | 26 March 1027 | 4 June 1039 | Great-great-grandson of Otto I |
![]() | Henry III (Heinrich III.) | Salian | 14 April 1028 | 25 December 1046 | 5 October 1056 | Son of Conrad II; King (of the Germans?) [4] under his father 1028–1039 |
![]() | Henry IV (Heinrich IV.) | Salian | 17 July 1054 | 21 March 1084 | 31 December 1105 | Son of Henry III; King of Germany under his father, 1054–1056 |
| Rudolf of Rheinfelden (Rudolf von Rheinfelden) | Rheinfeld | 15 March 1077 | — | 15 October 1080 | Rival king to Henry IV |
![]() | Hermann of Salm (Hermann von Luxemburg, Graf von Salm) | Salm | 6 August 1081 | — | 28 September 1088 | Rival king to Henry IV |
![]() | Conrad (Konrad) | Salian | 30 May 1087 | — | 27 July 1101 | Son of Henry IV; King of Germany under his father, 1087–1098, King of Italy, 1093–1098, 1095–1101 in rebellion. |
![]() | Henry V (Heinrich V.) | Salian | 6 January 1099 | 13 April 1111 | 23 May 1125 | Son of Henry IV; King of Germany under his father, 1099–1105, forced his father to abdicate |
Image | Name | House | King | Emperor | Ended | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
![]() | Lothair III (Lothar III.) | Supplinburger | 30 August 1125 | 4 June 1133 | 4 December 1137 | He was Lothair II of Germany, but Lothair III of Italy |
Image | Name | House | King | Emperor | Ended | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
![]() | Conrad III (Konrad III.) | Hohenstaufen | 7 March 1138 | — | 15 February 1152 | Grandson of Henry IV (through his mother); Previously Rival King to Lothair III 1127–1135 |
Henry Berengar (Heinrich (VI.)) | Hohenstaufen | 30 March 1147 | — | August? 1150 | Son of Conrad III; King of Germany under his father 1147–1150 | |
![]() | Frederick I Barbarossa (Friedrich I. Barbarossa) | Hohenstaufen | 4 March 1152 | 18 June 1155 | 10 June 1190 | Nephew of Conrad III |
![]() | Henry VI (Heinrich VI.) | Hohenstaufen | 15 August 1169 | 14 April 1191 | 28 September 1197 | Son of Frederick I; King of Germany under his father 1169–1190 |
![]() | Frederick II (Friedrich II.) | Hohenstaufen | 1197 | — | 1197 | Son of Henry VI; King of Germany under his father, 1196 |
![]() | Philip of Swabia (Philipp von Schwaben) | Hohenstaufen | 6 March 1198 | — | 21 August 1208 | Son of Frederick I; rival king to Otto IV |
![]() | Otto IV (Otto IV. von Braunschweig) | Welf | 29 March 1198 | 4 October 1209 | 5 July 1215 | Rival king to Philip of Swabia; later opposed by Frederick II; deposed, 1215; died 19 May 1218 |
![]() | Frederick II (Friedrich II.) | Hohenstaufen | 5 December 1212 | 22 November 1220 | 26 December 1250 | Son of Henry VI; Rival king to Otto IV until 5 July 1215 |
![]() | Henry (Heinrich (VII.)) | Hohenstaufen | 23 April 1220 | — | 15 August 1235 | Son of Frederick II; King of Germany under his father, 1220–1235 |
![]() | Conrad IV (Konrad IV.) | Hohenstaufen | May 1237 | — | 1 May 1254 | Son of Frederick II; King of Germany under his father, 1237–1250 |
Image | Coat of arms | Name | House | King | Emperor | Ended | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
![]() | ![]() | Henry Raspe (Heinrich Raspe) | Thuringia | 22 May 1246 | — | 16 February 1247 | Rival King to Frederick II and great-great-great grandson of Henry IV |
![]() | ![]() | William of Holland (Wilhelm von Holland) | Holland | 3 October 1247 | — | 28 January 1256 | Rival King to Frederick II and Conrad IV, 1247–1254 |
![]() | ![]() | Richard of Cornwall (Richard von Cornwall) | Plantagenet | 13 January 1257 | — | 2 April 1272 | Brother-in-law of Frederick II; rival king to Alfonso of Castile; held no real authority. |
![]() | ![]() | Alfonso of Castile (Alfons von Kastilien) | House of Ivrea | 1 April 1257 | — | 1275 | Grandson of Philip; rival king to Richard of Cornwall; held no authority; later opposed by Rudolf I; relinquished claims 1275, died 1284 |
Image | Coat of arms | Name | House | King | Emperor | Ended | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
![]() | ![]() | Rudolf I (Rudolf I. von Habsburg) | Habsburg | 29 September 1273 | — | 15 July 1291 | First of the Habsburgs |
| ![]() | Adolf of Nassau (Adolf von Nassau) | Nassau | 5 May 1292 | — | 23 June 1298 | According to some historians, Adolf's election was preceded by the short-lived kingship of Conrad, Duke of Teck. See his article for details. |
![]() | ![]() | Albert I (Albrecht I. von Habsburg) | Habsburg | 24 June 1298 | — | 1 May 1308 | Son of Rudolf I; Rival king to Adolf of Nassau, 1298 |
![]() | ![]() | Henry VII (Heinrich VII. von Luxemburg) | Luxembourg | 27 November 1308 | 13 June 1311 | 24 August 1313 | Holy Roman Emperor |
![]() | ![]() | Louis IV (Ludwig IV. der Bayer) | Wittelsbach | 20 October 1314 | 17 January 1328 | 11 October 1347 | Grandson of Rudolf I; rival king to Frederick the Fair, 1314–1322 |
![]() | ![]() | Frederick the Fair (Friedrich der Schöne) | Habsburg | 19 October 1314/ 5 September 1325 | — | 28 September 1322/ 13 January 1330 | Son of Albert I; rival king to Louis IV, 1314–1322; associate king with Louis IV, 1325–1330 |
![]() | ![]() | Charles IV (Karl IV. von Luxemburg) | Luxembourg | 11 July 1346 | 5 April 1355 | 29 November 1378 | Grandson of Henry VII; rival king to Louis IV, 1346–1347; also King of Bohemia, King of Italy and Holy Roman Emperor |
![]() | ![]() | Günther von Schwarzburg (Günther von Schwarzburg) | Schwarzburg | 30 January 1349 | — | 24 May 1349 | Rival king to Charles IV |
![]() | ![]() | Wenceslaus (Wenzel von Böhmen) | Luxembourg | 10 June 1376 | — | 20 August 1400 | Son of Charles IV; king of Germany under his father 1376–1378; deposed 1400; also by inheritance King of Bohemia; died 1419 |
![]() | ![]() | Rupert of the Palatinate (Ruprecht von der Pfalz) | Wittelsbach | 21 August 1400 | — | 18 May 1410 | Great-grandnephew of Louis IV |
![]() | ![]() | Sigismund (Sigismund von Luxemburg) | Luxembourg | 20 September 1410 /21 July 1411 | 3 May 1433 | 9 December 1437 | Son of Charles IV |
![]() | ![]() | Jobst of Moravia (Jobst von Mähren) | Luxembourg | 1 October 1410 | — | 8 January 1411 | Nephew of Charles IV; rival king to Sigismund |
Image | Coat of arms | Name | House | King | Emperor | Ended | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
![]() | ![]() | Albert II (Albrecht II.) | Habsburg | 18 March 1438 | — | 27 October 1439 | 4th in descent from Albert I; son-in-law of Sigismund |
![]() | ![]() | Frederick III (Friedrich III.) | Habsburg | 2 February 1440 | 16 March 1452 | 19 August 1493 | 4th in descent from Albert I; 2nd cousin of Albert II |
![]() | ![]() | Maximilian I (Maximilian I.) | Habsburg | 16 February 1486 | 4 February 1508 | 12 January 1519 | Son of Frederick III; King of Germany under his father, 1486–1493; assumed the title "Elected Emperor" in 1508 with the pope's approval |
![]() | ![]() | Charles V (Karl V.) | Habsburg | 28 June 1519 | 28 June 1519 | 3 August 1556 | Grandson of Maximilian I; died 21 September 1558 |
![]() | ![]() | Ferdinand I (Ferdinand I.) | Habsburg | 5 January 1531 | 14 March 1558 | 25 July 1564 | Grandson of Maximilian I; brother of Charles V; King of Germany under his brother Charles V 1531–1556; last king to be crowned in Aachen Cathedral. Emperor |
![]() | ![]() | Maximilian II (Maximilian II.) | Habsburg | 22 November 1562 | 25 July 1564 | 12 October 1576 | Son of Ferdinand I; King of Germany under his father 1562–1564 |
![]() | ![]() | Rudolf II (Rudolf II.) | Habsburg | 27 October 1575 | 2 November 1576 | 20 January 1612 | Son of Maximilian II; King of Germany under his father, 1575–1576 |
![]() | ![]() | Matthias (Matthias) | Habsburg | 13 June 1612 | 13 June 1612 | 20 March 1619 | Son of Maximilian II |
![]() | ![]() | Ferdinand II (Ferdinand II.) | Habsburg | 28 August 1619 | 28 August 1619 | 15 February 1637 | Grandson of Ferdinand I |
![]() | ![]() | Ferdinand III (Ferdinand III.) | Habsburg | 22 December 1636 | 15 February 1637 | 2 April 1657 | Son of Ferdinand II; King of Germany under his father 1636–1637 |
![]() | ![]() | Ferdinand IV (Ferdinand IV.) | Habsburg | 31 May 1653 | — | 9 July 1654 | Son of Ferdinand III; King of Germany under his father |
![]() | ![]() | Leopold I (Leopold I.) | Habsburg | 18 July 1658 | 18 July 1658 | 5 May 1705 | Son of Ferdinand III |
| ![]() | Joseph I (Joseph I.) | Habsburg | 23 January 1690 | 5 May 1705 | 17 April 1711 | Son of Leopold I; King of Germany under his father 1690–1705 |
![]() | ![]() | Charles VI (Karl VI.) | Habsburg | 27 October 1711 | 27 October 1711 | 20 October 1740 | Son of Leopold I |
Image | Coat of arms | Name | House | King | Emperor | Ended | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
![]() | ![]() | Charles VII (Karl VII.) | Wittelsbach | 14 January 1742 | 14 January 1742 | 20 January 1745 | Great-great-grandson of Ferdinand II; Husband of Maria Amalia, daughter of Joseph I |
Image | Coat of arms | Name | House | King | Emperor | Ended | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
![]() | ![]() | Francis I (Franz I.) | Lorraine | 13 September 1745 | 13 September 1745 | 18 August 1765 | Great-grandson of Ferdinand III; Husband of Maria Theresa, daughter of Charles VI |
![]() | ![]() | Joseph II (Joseph II.) | Habsburg-Lorraine | 27 March 1764 | 18 August 1765 | 20 February 1790 | Son of Francis I and Maria Theresa; King of Germany under his father 1764–1765 |
![]() | ![]() | Leopold II (Leopold II.) | Habsburg-Lorraine | 30 September 1790 | 30 September 1790 | 1 March 1792 | Son of Francis I and Maria Theresa |
![]() | ![]() | Francis II (Franz II.) | Habsburg-Lorraine | 7 July 1792 | 7 July 1792 | 6 August 1806 | Son of Leopold II; Dissolved the Holy Roman Empire; also Emperor of Austria 1804–1835; President of the German Confederation (1815-1835), died 1835 |
Name | Portrait | Title | House | Began | Ended |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Napoleon Emperor of the French King of Italy | ![]() | Protector of the Confederation of the Rhine | ![]() Bonaparte | 12 July 1806 | December 1813 |
Karl Theodor von Dalberg, Prince-Archbishop of Regensburg Grand Duke of Frankfurt | ![]() | Prince-primate of the Confederation of the Rhine | ![]() Dalberg | 25 July 1806 | 26 October 1813 |
Eugène de Beauharnais, Grand Duke of Frankfurt | ![]() | Prince-primate of the Confederation of the Rhine | ![]() Beauharnais | 26 October 1813 | December 1813 |
Name | Portrait | Title | House | Began | Ended |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Francis I, Emperor of Austria (Franz I., Kaiser von Österreich) | ![]() | Head of the presiding power (Präsidialmacht) Austria [5] | ![]() Habsburg-Lorraine | 20 June 1815 | 2 March 1835 |
Ferdinand I, Emperor of Austria (Ferdinand I., Kaiser von Österreich) | ![]() | Head of the presiding power (Präsidialmacht) Austria [5] | ![]() Habsburg-Lorraine | 2 March 1835 | 12 July 1848 |
Archduke John of Austria (Erzherzog Johann von Österreich) | ![]() | Regent ( Reichsverweser ) of the revolutionary German Empire [6] | ![]() Habsburg-Lorraine | 12 July 1848 | 20 December 1849 |
Frederick William IV, King of Prussia (Friedrich Wilhelm IV., König von Preußen) | ![]() | Emperor of the Germans elect [7] | ![]() Hohenzollern | 28 March 1849 | 28 April 1849 |
Presidium of the Union (Unionsvorstand) of the Erfurt Union [8] | 26 May 1849 | 29 November 1850 | |||
Francis Joseph I, Emperor of Austria (Franz Joseph I., Kaiser von Österreich) | ![]() | Head of the presiding power (Präsidialmacht) Austria | ![]() Habsburg-Lorraine | 1 May 1850 | 24 August 1866 |
Name | Portrait | Title | House | Began | Ended |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Wilhelm I, King of Prussia (Wilhelm I, König von Preußen) | Holder of the Bundespräsidium of the North German Confederation | ![]() Hohenzollern | 1 July 1867 | 1 January 1871 [9] |
Name | Portrait | Title | House | Began | Ended |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Wilhelm I, German Emperor (Wilhelm I., Deutscher Kaiser) | German Emperor | ![]() Hohenzollern | 1 January 1871 [9] | 9 March 1888 | |
Friedrich III, German Emperor (Friedrich III., Deutscher Kaiser) | ![]() | German Emperor | ![]() Hohenzollern | 9 March 1888 | 15 June 1888 |
Wilhelm II, German Emperor (Wilhelm II., Deutscher Kaiser) | ![]() | German Emperor | ![]() Hohenzollern | 15 June 1888 | 9/28 November 1918 [10] |
† denotes people who died in office.
Portrait | Reichspräsident | Took office | Left office | Time in office | Party | Election | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Friedrich Ebert (1871–1925) | 11 February 1919 | 28 February 1925 † | 6 years, 17 days | SPD | 1919 | ||
Hans Luther (1879–1962) Acting [lower-alpha 1] | 28 February 1925 | 12 March 1925 | 12 days | Nonpartisan | – | ||
Walter Simons (1861–1937) Acting [lower-alpha 2] | 12 March 1925 | 12 May 1925 | 61 days | Nonpartisan | – | ||
Generalfeldmarschall Paul von Hindenburg (1847–1934) | 12 May 1925 | 2 August 1934 † | 9 years, 82 days | Nonpartisan | 1925 1932 | ||
Adolf Hitler (1889–1945) Führer und Reichskanzler | 2 August 1934 | 30 April 1945 † | 10 years, 271 days | NSDAP | – | ||
Großadmiral Karl Dönitz (1891–1980) | 30 April 1945 | 23 May 1945 | 23 days | NSDAP | – |
† denotes people who died in office.
Portrait | Bundespräsident | Took office | Left office | Time in office | Party | Election | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Theodor Heuss (1884–1963) | 13 September 1949 | 12 September 1959 | 9 years, 364 days | FDP | 1949 1954 | ||
Heinrich Lübke (1894–1972) | 13 September 1959 | 30 June 1969 (resigned) | 9 years, 290 days | CDU | 1959 1964 | ||
Gustav Heinemann (1899–1976) | 1 July 1969 | 30 June 1974 | 4 years, 364 days | SPD | 1969 | ||
Walter Scheel (1919–2016) | 1 July 1974 | 30 June 1979 | 4 years, 364 days | FDP | 1974 | ||
Karl Carstens (1914–1992) | 1 July 1979 | 30 June 1984 | 4 years, 365 days | CDU | 1979 | ||
Richard von Weizsäcker (1920–2015) | 1 July 1984 | 30 June 1994 | 9 years, 364 days | CDU | 1984 1989 | ||
Roman Herzog (1934–2017) | 1 July 1994 | 30 June 1999 | 4 years, 364 days | CDU | 1994 | ||
Johannes Rau (1931–2006) | 1 July 1999 | 30 June 2004 | 4 years, 365 days | SPD | 1999 | ||
Horst Köhler (born 1943) | 1 July 2004 | 31 May 2010 (resigned) | 5 years, 334 days | CDU | 2004 2009 | ||
Jens Böhrnsen (born 1949) Acting [lower-alpha 3] | 31 May 2010 | 30 June 2010 | 30 days | SPD | – | ||
Christian Wulff (born 1959) | 30 June 2010 | 17 February 2012 (resigned) | 1 year, 232 days | CDU | 2010 | ||
Horst Seehofer (born 1949) Acting [lower-alpha 3] | 17 February 2012 | 18 March 2012 | 30 days | CSU | – | ||
Joachim Gauck (born 1940) | 18 March 2012 | 18 March 2017 | 5 years, 0 days | Independent | 2012 | ||
Frank-Walter Steinmeier (born 1956) | 18 March 2017 | Incumbent | 7 years, 65 days | SPD | 2017 2022 |
† denotes people who died in office.
Portrait | Name | Took office | Left office | Time in office | Party | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
President of the Republic Präsident der Republik | ||||||
Wilhelm Pieck (1876–1960) | 11 October 1949 | 7 September 1960 † | 10 years, 332 days | SED | ||
Johannes Dieckmann (1893–1969) Acting [lower-alpha 4] | 7 September 1960 | 12 September 1960 | 5 days | LDPD | ||
Chairman of the State Council Vorsitzender des Staatsrats | ||||||
Walter Ulbricht (1893–1973) | 12 September 1960 | 1 August 1973 † | 12 years, 323 days | SED | ||
Friedrich Ebert Jr. (1894–1979) Acting [lower-alpha 5] | 1 August 1973 | 3 October 1973 | 63 days | SED | ||
Willi Stoph (1914–1999) | 3 October 1973 | 29 October 1976 | 3 years, 26 days | SED | ||
Erich Honecker (1912–1994) | 29 October 1976 | 18 October 1989 (resigned) | 12 years, 354 days | SED | ||
Egon Krenz (born 1937) | 18 October 1989 | 6 December 1989 (resigned) | 49 days | SED | ||
Manfred Gerlach (1928–2011) | 6 December 1989 | 5 April 1990 (office abolished) | 120 days | LDPD | ||
President of the People's Chamber Präsident der Volkskammer | ||||||
Sabine Bergmann-Pohl (born 1946) | 5 April 1990 | 2 October 1990 ( East Germany joined Federal Republic ) | 180 days | CDU |
Country | Years | Title of Head of State |
---|---|---|
![]() | 1871–1918 | German Emperor Deutscher Kaiser |
![]() | 1919–1933 | President of the Reich Reichspräsident |
![]() | 1933–1934 | President of the Reich Reichspräsident |
1934–1945 | Leader and Chancellor Führer und Reichskanzler | |
1945 | President of the Reich Reichspräsident |
Country | Years | Title of Head of State |
---|---|---|
![]() | 1949–1990 | Federal President Bundespräsident |
![]() | 1949–1960 | President of the German Democratic Republic Präsident der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik |
1960–1990 | Chairman of the State Council Vorsitzender des Staatsrates | |
1990 | President of the People's Chamber Präsident der Volkskammer |
Country | Years | Title of Head of State |
---|---|---|
![]() | 1990–Present | Federal President Bundespräsident |
The German Confederation was an association of 39 predominantly German-speaking sovereign states in Central Europe. It was created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 as a replacement of the former Holy Roman Empire, which had been dissolved in 1806 in reaction to the Napoleonic Wars.
Kaiser is the German word for "emperor". In general, the German title in principle applies to rulers anywhere in the world above the rank of king (König). In English, the (untranslated) word Kaiser is mainly applied to the emperors of the unified German Empire (1871–1918) and the emperors of the Austrian Empire (1804–1918). During the First World War, anti-German sentiment was at its zenith; the term Kaiser—especially as applied to Wilhelm II, German Emperor—thus gained considerable negative connotations in English-speaking countries.
The North German Confederation was initially a German military alliance established in August 1866 under the leadership of the Kingdom of Prussia, which was transformed in the subsequent year into a confederated state that existed from July 1867 to December 1870. A milestone of the German Unification, it was the earliest continual legal predecessor of the modern German nation-state known today as the Federal Republic of Germany.
The Constitution of the German Empire was the basic law of the German Empire of 1871–1918, from 16 April 1871, coming into effect on 4 May 1871. German historians often refer to it as Bismarck's imperial constitution, in German the Bismarcksche Reichsverfassung (BRV).
The German Emperor was the official title of the head of state and hereditary ruler of the German Empire. A specifically chosen term, it was introduced with the 1 January 1871 constitution and lasted until the official abdication of Wilhelm II on 9 November 1918. The Holy Roman Emperor is sometimes also called "German Emperor" when the historical context is clear, as derived from the Holy Roman Empire's official name of "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation" from 1512.
The Reichsflotte was the first navy for all of Germany, established by the revolutionary German Empire to provide a naval force in the First Schleswig War against Denmark. The decision was made on 14 June 1848 by the Frankfurt Parliament, which is considered by the modern German Navy as its birthday.
The chancellor of Germany, officially the federal chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany, is the head of the federal government of Germany, and the commander-in-chief of the German Armed Forces during wartime. The chancellor is the chief executive of the Federal Cabinet and heads the executive branch. The chancellor is elected by the Bundestag on the proposal of the federal president and without debate.
The German Empire was a proto-state which attempted, but ultimately failed, to unify the German states within the German Confederation to create a German nation-state. It was created in the spring of 1848 during the German revolutions by the Frankfurt National Assembly. The parliament elected Archduke John of Austria as its provisional head of state with the title 'Imperial Regent'. On 28 March 1849, its constitution was implemented and the parliament elected the king of Prussia, Frederick William IV, to be the constitutional monarch of the empire with the title 'Emperor of the Germans'. However, he turned the position down. The empire came to an end in December 1849 when the Central German Government was replaced by a Federal Central Commission.
The Reichstag of the North German Confederation was the federal state's lower house of parliament. The popularly elected Reichstag was responsible for federal legislation together with the Bundesrat, the upper house whose members were appointed by the governments of the individual states to represent their interests. Executive power lay with the Bundesrat and the king of Prussia acting as Bundespräsidium, or head of state. The Reichstag debated and approved or rejected taxes and expenditures and could propose laws in its own right. To become effective, all laws required the approval of both the Bundesrat and the Reichstag. Voting rights in Reichstag elections were advanced for the time, granting universal, equal, and secret suffrage to men above the age of 25.
The North German Confederation Treaty was the treaty between the Kingdom of Prussia and other northern and central German states that initially created the North German Confederation, which was the forerunner to the German Empire. This treaty, and others that followed in September and October, are often described as the August treaties, although not all of them were concluded in August 1866.
The second Stresemann cabinet, headed by Chancellor Gustav Stresemann of the German People's Party (DVP), was the ninth democratically elected government of the Weimar Republic. It took office on 6 October 1923 when it replaced the first Stresemann cabinet, which had resigned on 3 October over internal disagreements related to increasing working hours in vital industries above the eight-hour per day norm. The new cabinet was a majority coalition of four parties from the moderate left to centre-right.
The Bundesrat was the highest legislative body in the German Empire (1871–1918). Its members were appointed by the governments of Germany's constituent states to represent their interests in the German parliament. The popularly elected Reichstag was the lower house. The Constitution of the German Empire required that both the Bundesrat and the Reichstag approve laws before they came into force. The Bundesrat was responsible for the enactment of the laws, administrative regulations and the judicial resolution of disputes between constituent states. Its approval was required for declarations of war and, with certain limitations, the conclusion of state treaties.
The Constitution of the German Confederation or November Constitution (Novemberverfassung) was the constitution of the German federal state at the beginning of the year 1871. It was enacted on January 1, 1871. This is a slightly changed version of the Constitution of the North German Confederation; it is not to be confused with the constitutional laws of the German Confederation of 1815.
The Imperial Plan of 1870 was a diplomatic initiative set out by the Prussian Minister President and Federal Chancellor of the North German Confederation, Otto von Bismarck. Accordingly, the Prussian King was able to assume the title of German Emperor.
The question of an Imperial Sovereign or emperor was a central issue in Germany's attempts at unification from 1848 to 1850. Both the draft constitutional act with its provision for centralised power as well as the constitutional plans at that time, laid down how a German head of state would be selected for office and what rights they were to have.
Präsidium des Bundes or Bundespräsidium was a title under the German Confederation whereby the Austrian delegate held the chair of the Federal Assembly. Austria was thus called the presiding power. This did not give Austria extra competencies: its delegate simply led the proceedings of the Federal Assembly.
Reichsminister was the title of members of the German Government during two historical periods: during the March Revolution of 1848/1849 in the German Reich of that period, and in the modern German federal state from 1919 to the end of the National Socialist regime in 1945.
Autumn Crisis or November Crisis is the name given to a political-military conflict in Germany in 1850. In this conflict, the ultra-conservative Austrian Empire led those German states that wanted to restore the German Confederation after the revolution of 1848-1849, while Prussia wanted to create a new federal-state. This almost led to war in Germany, which was finally avoided by Prussia's backing down.
From 1866 to 1869, the South German Confederation or Südbund, was the idea that the southern German states of Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden and Hesse-Darmstadt would form a confederation of states. Article 4 of the Peace of Prague after the Austro-Prussian War spoke of this possibility. However, due to disagreement among themselves, the southern German states concerned did not make use of this.
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