Megacrania batesii

Last updated

Megacrania batesii
Megacrania.batesii.1.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Phasmatodea
Family: Phasmatidae
Genus: Megacrania
Species:
M. batesii
Binomial name
Megacrania batesii
Kirby, 1896
Synonyms [2]

Megacrania batesii, commonly known as the peppermint stick insect, is an unusual species of stick insect found in northeastern Australia, the Bismarck Archipelago, the Solomon Islands, New Guinea, [3] and possibly as far north as the Philippines. [4] [5] It is notable for its aposematic coloration, as well as its robust chemical defense mechanism. Its common name refers to the irritating fluid — with an odor resembling peppermint — that it sprays as a defensive action [6] from a pair of glands located at its prothorax when threatened, [1] as well as the cylindrical, twig-like shape of its body. A member of the subfamily Megacraniinae, it was first described by English naturalist and explorer Henry Walter Bates in 1865. [7]

Contents

Within their distribution, the habitat of these large insects occurs in complex mesophyll vine forests (lowland tropical and subtropical rainforests), at the transition area between the forest and the beach. [8] They can be found in small numbers in such places, resting on the upper surfaces of the leaves of various species in the Pandanaceae family. Some of the isolated subpopulations of this species in northern Queensland are at risk for local extinction as a result of natural or anthropogenic hazards. [1]

This species appears to reproduce primarily by parthenogenesis, although sexual reproduction has also been observed. Predators of this insect include spiders, centipedes, green tree ants, mantises, katydids, and some birds. At least one species of parasitoid wasp has been observed to lay their eggs in the eggs of M. batesii. [1]

Taxonomy

This species was first described (as Platycrania alpheus) by Henry Walter Bates in 1865, [7] and reclassified in 1896 by William Forsell Kirby. [9] It is one of twelve known species within genus Megacrania . [3]

Description

Adults mating at Cape Tribulation, Queensland, Australia Megacrania batesii-mating-DEM.jpg
Adults mating at Cape Tribulation, Queensland, Australia

As is the case with most species of Phasmatodea, the males are significantly smaller than their female counterparts. The body length is 76–87 millimeters (3.0–3.4 in) in males, versus 98–137 millimeters (3.9–5.4 in) in females. The prothorax and mesothorax are also smaller in males. The tegmina are roughly the same size in both sexes, but the hind wings are larger in males, relative to their body size. [3]

In the case of adults and the last larval instars, the entire body is a mostly uniform pale green; the head, thorax, mesothorax and legs are somewhat darker in color than the tegmina. [3] In some cases, the antennae and wing-buds and eyes may be a different color (yellow, red, or black). [1]

Distribution and habitat

M. batesii occurs in a restricted and patchy distribution in the Solomon Islands and New Guinea, and possibly the Philippines. There are also two distinct populations of these insects in Australia: one on the Cape York Peninsula in Queensland, and the other on the Sir Edward Pellew Group of Islands in the Gulf of Carpentaria. The habitat is complex mesophyll vine forests, typically at the transition area between the rainforest and the beach, where the insects live in pandanus plants. In rare cases, this species has been recorded beside rainforest streams or swamps as far as 5 km inland. Because the distribution of this species occurs over a very small (less than 100 km2) and highly fragmented area, it appears to meet the IUCN criteria for a vulnerable species. Some of the isolated subpopulations of this species in northern Queensland are at risk for local extinction as a result of natural or anthropogenic hazards. [1]

Behavior and ecology

Adult female at Cape Tribulation, Queensland, Australia. In this image, the left prothoracic gland can be seen at the dorsolateral aspect of the anterior margin of the prothorax. Megacrania batesii-DEM.jpg
Adult female at Cape Tribulation, Queensland, Australia. In this image, the left prothoracic gland can be seen at the dorsolateral aspect of the anterior margin of the prothorax.

These sedentary insects are typically found resting on the upper surfaces of the leaves of various species in the Pandanaceae family upon which they feed, with the front and mid legs stretched far forward and the hind legs stretched to the rear. They do not appear to use their hind legs for locomotion. [10]

Although both sexes have wings, M. batesii cannot fly. The males, whose hind wings are larger in proportion to their body size, are capable of "parachuting" to the forest floor when threatened. They are not gregarious insects, with rarely more than 3 individuals residing on any given leaf cluster. [1]

Diet and predators

M. batesii has been observed to feed on three species of Pandanaceae in the wild: Benstonea monticola , Pandanus solms-laubachii , and P. tectorius . The presence of these phasmids can be inferred by detecting the feeding scars they leave on the plants, which are readily distinguishable from those of the few other insects that feed on them. In captivity, they have been observed to feed on unspecified species of Freycinetia , as well as P. gemmifer , P. utilis , and P. whitei . [1]

Although these insects can inflict a great deal of damage to the plants upon which they feed, they are not typically considered to be pests because the host plant is not of significant economic importance. [11] That said, at least one example has been reported in which an infestation of stick insects — possibly M. batesii — in Capiz Province on Panay Island in the Philippines has resulted in the destruction of pandanus plants used in the manufacture of mats. [4] [5]

Predators of this insect include huntsman spiders, jumping spiders, scolopendrid centipedes, green tree ants, mantises, katydids, and black butcherbirds. Throughout their distribution within Queensland, eggs of M. batesii have been observed to be parasitized by eupelmid wasps of genus Anastatus . [1]

Life cycle and reproduction

The vast majority of specimens observed and collected in the wild are female, with male specimens being uncommon. Parthenogenesis appears to be the primary means of reproduction in some populations of M. batesii, [10] although sexual reproduction has been observed in other populations, including in captivity. [1]

Defense mechanisms

There are roughly 2500 known species of stick insects. These large and often apterous insects are vulnerable to predators because they are slow and clumsy. Most species employ crypsis (for example, they are usually colored and shaped like twigs and leaves) as a primary defense mechanism. Only a few known species are aposematically colored or protected by defensive scent glands. [12]

In addition to its aposematic coloration, M. batesii possesses a robust chemical defense mechanism. [13] When sufficiently provoked (especially when the thorax and abdomen are touched) or when cornered by a perceived predator, these insects can spray an aerosolized cloud of noxious sticky white fluid from a pair of glands located at the prothorax. [13]

In an early description of a closely related species ( Megacrania wegneri ) in the Maluku Islands of Indonesia, Wegner reported that even immature phasmids were already in possession of a well-developed chemical defense mechanism. He noted that the noxious effluvium could be directed in front of the insect as well as to the rear. He further noted that the female was able to eject the substance as far as 75 centimeters (30 in), and even the considerably smaller male can spray up to 50 centimeters (20 in). Wegner also carefully described the paired prothoracic glands — these are pits located on the left and right side, dorsolaterally, at the anterior margin of the prothorax. When threatened, the phasmid contracts a muscle that extrudes a dome-shaped membrane through these pits. This membrane serves as a nozzle through which two jets of aerosolized fluid can be sprayed in either a forward or backward direction, depending on from where the insect perceives the threat. [14] [15]

A few other phasmid species possess a chemical defense mechanism involving the secretion of a noxious fluid from a pair of prothoracic glands when disturbed. In nearly every species of phasmid studied thus far, the active components of these secretions appear to be cyclopentanoid monoterpenes. [12] The only known exceptions to this rule are Oreophoetes peruana and Cryptophyllium westwoodii . Quinoline is the active component in the former, [12] while the secretions of the latter contain various alkylpyrazines. [16]

Examples of phasmids which secrete cyclopentanoid monoterpenes from their prothoracic glands include several species of genus Anisomorpha , which secrete anisomorphal. [17] [18] [19] Other examples include Megacrania alpheus , Megacrania nigrosulfurea , and Megacrania tsudai , three species closely related to M. batesii that possess a nearly identical chemical defense mechanism. Actinidine is the chief component of the substance secreted by the prothoracic glands of these three species. [20] [21] [22] [23]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phasmatodea</span> Order of stick and leaf insects

The Phasmatodea are an order of insects whose members are variously known as stick insects, stick-bugs, walkingsticks, stick animals, or bug sticks. They are also occasionally referred to as Devil's darning needles, although this name is shared by both dragonflies and crane flies. They can be generally referred to as phasmatodeans, phasmids, or ghost insects, with phasmids in the family Phylliidae called leaf insects, leaf-bugs, walking leaves, or bug leaves. The group's name is derived from the Ancient Greek φάσμα phasma, meaning an apparition or phantom, referring to their resemblance to vegetation while in fact being animals. Their natural camouflage makes them difficult for predators to detect; still, many species have one of several secondary lines of defense in the form of startle displays, spines or toxic secretions. Stick insects from the genera Phryganistria, Ctenomorpha, and Phobaeticus include the world's longest insects.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Osmeterium</span> Odoriferous defensive structure

The osmeterium is a defensive organ found in all papilionid larvae, in all stages. The organ is situated in the prothoracic segment and can be everted when the larva feels threatened. The everted organ resembles a fleshy forked tongue, and this along with the large eye-like spots on the body might be used to startle birds and small reptiles. The osmeterial organ remains inside the body in the thoracic region in an inverted position and is everted when the larva is disturbed in any way emitting a foul, disagreeable odor which serves to repel ants, small spiders and mantids. To humans, this odour is rather strong but not unpleasant, usually smelling like a concentrated scent of the caterpillar's food plant and pineapple.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Actinidine</span> Chemical compound

Actinidine is an iridoid produced in nature by a wide variety of plants and animals. It was the first cyclopentanoid monoterpene alkaloid to be discovered. It is one of several compounds that may be extracted from the valerian root and silver vine, as well as several types of insects in the larval and imaginal stages. Actinidine is a cat attractant, with effects like those of nepetalactone, the active compound found in catnip.

<i>Phobaeticus serratipes</i> Species of insect

Phobaeticus serratipes is a species of stick insect that at one time was the longest known insect, with one female specimen recorded as being 55.5 cm (21.9 in) in total length. This measurement includes the legs fully extended front and rear, and the actual length of the body alone is considerably shorter. This insect is endemic to Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore and Sumatra. It is a popular species among those who raise insects.

<i>Extatosoma tiaratum</i> Species of stick insect

Extatosoma tiaratum, commonly known as the spiny leaf insect, the giant prickly stick insect, Macleay's spectre, or the Australian walking stick, is a large species of Australian stick insect. The species has the Phasmid Study Group number PSG9.

<i>Timema</i> Genus of stick insects

Timema is a genus of relatively short-bodied, stout and wingless stick insects native to the far western United States, and the sole extant member of the family Timematidae. The genus was first described in 1895 by Samuel Hubbard Scudder, based on observations of the species Timema californicum.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Euphasmatodea</span> Suborder of insects

The Euphasmatodea, also known by its junior synonym Verophasmatodea is a suborder of the Phasmatodea, which contains the vast majority of the extant species of stick and leaf insects, excluding the Timematodea. The oldest record of Euphasmatodea is Araripephasma from the Crato Formation of Brazil, dating to the Aptian stage of the Early Cretaceous.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phasmatidae</span> Family of stick insects

The Phasmatidae are a family of the stick insects. They belong to the superfamily Anareolatae of suborder Verophasmatodea.

<i>Peruphasma schultei</i> Species of stick insect

Peruphasma schultei, known as the black beauty stick insect and the golden-eyed stick insect, is a species of phasmid found in the Cordillera del Condor region of northern Peru. In the wild the insect feeds on Schinus plants, but will feed on privet, Aucuba japonica and honeysuckle in captivity. In Peru they are only known to exist in a region of less than 5 hectares, usually on volcanoes or mountains, but since their discovery they have become increasingly popular as pets worldwide due to their unusual colouration and they are now bred regularly in captivity.

<i>Eurycnema goliath</i> Species of stick insect

Eurycnema goliath, commonly known as the goliath stick insect, or the regal stick insect, is a large species of stick insect in the family Phasmatidae, endemic to Australia and considered one of the largest species of stick insects in the country. The species has the Phasmid Study Group number PSG14.

Phobaeticus chani, the Chan's megastick, is a species of stick insect in the tribe Pharnaciini, native to the southeast Asian island of Borneo. It is one of the longest insects in the world and was once considered the record-holder. One specimen held in the Natural History Museum in London measures 56.7 cm (22.3 in). This measurement is, however, with the front legs fully extended. The body alone still measures an impressive 35.7 cm (35.7 cm).

<i>Ctenomorpha marginipennis</i> Species of stick insect

Ctenomorpha marginipennis, the margin-winged stick insect, is a species of stick insect endemic to southern Australia. The species was first described by George Robert Gray in 1833.

Asceles is a genus of stick insects in the tribe Necrosciini. Some of the species of Asceles have a distribution in Malaysia and Singapore.

<i>Anisomorpha buprestoides</i> Species of stick insect

Anisomorpha buprestoides, the southern two-striped walkingstick, devil rider, or musk mare, is a stick insect which occurs throughout the southeastern United States.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deimatic behaviour</span> Bluffing display of an animal used to startle or scare a predator

Deimatic behaviour or startle display means any pattern of bluffing behaviour in an animal that lacks strong defences, such as suddenly displaying conspicuous eyespots, to scare off or momentarily distract a predator, thus giving the prey animal an opportunity to escape. The term deimatic or dymantic originates from the Greek δειματόω (deimatóo), meaning "to frighten".

<i>Megacrania</i> Genus of stick insects

Megacrania is a genus of the subfamily Megacraniinae of stick insects. Members of this genus are commonly referred to as "peppermint stick insects", due to the characteristic odor of their defensive spray, as well as the cylindrical, twig-like shape of their bodies.

Anchiale marmorata is a medium-sized stick insect found in Papua New Guinea. This species is very similar to A. modesta but females are smaller in size and have shorter legs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Toxungen</span>

Toxungen comprises a secretion or other body fluid of one or more biological toxins that is transferred by one animal to the external surface of another animal via a physical delivery mechanism. Toxungens can be delivered through spitting, spraying, or smearing. As one of three categories of biological toxins, toxungens can be distinguished from poisons, which are passively transferred via ingestion, inhalation, or absorption across the skin, and venoms, which are delivered through a wound generated by a bite, sting, or other such action. Toxungen use offers the evolutionary advantage of delivering toxins into the target's tissues without the need for physical contact.

<i>Pandanus solms-laubachii</i> Species of plant in the family Pandanaceae

Pandanus solms-laubachii, commonly known as the swamp pandan, is a small tree in the family Pandanaceae which occurs in northeastern Queensland and possibly in Papua New Guinea. It is closely related to both Pandanus gemmifer and Pandanus grayorum.

<i>Benstonea monticola</i> Species of plant in the family Pandanaceae

Benstonea monticola, commonly known as scrub breadfruit or urchin-fruited pandan, is a plant in the family Pandanaceae which is endemic to rainforested parts of north east Queensland, Australia.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Cermak, M; Hasenpusch, JW (2000). "Distribution, biology and conservation status of the peppermint stick insect, Megacrania batesii (Kirby) (Phasmatodea: Phasmatidae), in Queensland". Memoirs of the Queensland Museum. 46: 101–6.
  2. ↑ "Megacrania batesii Kirby, 1896". Copenhagen: Global Biodiversity Information Facility. 2019. Retrieved 10 January 2021.
  3. 1 2 3 4 Hsiung, Chia-Chi (2007). "Revision of the genus Megacrania Kaup (Cheleutoptera: Phasmatidae)". Journal of Orthoptera Research. 16 (2): 207–21. doi: 10.1665/1082-6467(2007)16[207:ROTGMK]2.0.CO;2 . JSTOR   20066587. S2CID   85588084.
  4. 1 2 Lit, Ireneo Latunio; Eusebio, Orlando (2008). "A new species of the genus Pharnacia (Phasmatodea: Phasmatidae: Phasmatinae: Pharnaciini) on mango trees in Sibuyan Island with notes on stick insects found on agricultural crops". Philippine Agricultural Scientist. 91: 115–22.
  5. 1 2 Baker, Edward (2015). "The worldwide status of phasmids (Insecta: Phasmida) as pests of agriculture and forestry, with a generalised theory of phasmid outbreaks". Agriculture & Food Security. 4 (22). doi: 10.1186/s40066-015-0040-6 . hdl: 10141/615363 . S2CID   17881709.
  6. ↑ "Leaf and stick insects". The Wet Tropics World Heritage Area. Cairns, Queensland: Wet Tropics Management Authority. 2021. Retrieved 11 January 2021.
  7. 1 2 Bates, HW (1865). "Descriptions of Fifty-two New Specimens of Phasmidae from the Collection of Mr. W. Wilson Saunders, with Remarks on the Family". Transactions of the Linnean Society of London. 25 (2): 347.
  8. ↑ Tracey, J. G. (John Geoffrey) (1982), The Vegetation of the Humid Tropical Region of North Queensland, pp. 13–24
  9. ↑ Kirby, W. F. (1896). "On some new or rare Phasmidae in the Collection of the British Museum". Transactions of the Linnean Society of London. 2. 6 (6): 447–75. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1896.tb00546.x.
  10. 1 2 Rentz, David C. (1996). Grasshopper Country: The Abundant Orthopteroid Insects of Australia. Sydney: UNSW Press. p. 256. ISBN   0-86840-063-7.
  11. ↑ Hennemann, FH (2020). "Megacraniinae-The Palm Stick Insects: A new subfamily of Old World Phasmatodea and a redefinition of Platycraninae Brunner v. Wattenwyl, 1893 (Phasmatodea: "Anareolatae")". Zootaxa. 4896 (2): 151–79. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.4896.2.1. PMID   33756861. S2CID   232340127.
  12. 1 2 3 Eisner, Thomas; Morgan, R. C.; Attygalle, A. B.; Smedley, S. R.; Herath, K. B.; Meinwald, Jerrold (1997). "Defensive production of quinoline by a phasmid insect (Oreophoetes peruana)" (PDF). Journal of Experimental Biology. 200 (19): 2493–500. doi:10.1242/jeb.200.19.2493. PMID   9366083.
  13. 1 2 Jones, BR; Bulbert, M (2019). "Directed chemical spray of the peppermint stick insect (Megacrania batesii) is induced when predation risk is at its highest". Journal of Ethology. 38 (4): 51–59. doi:10.1007/s10164-019-00619-0. S2CID   204757997.
  14. ↑ Wegner, AMR (1955). "Biological notes on Megacrania wegneri Willemse and M. alpheus Westwood (Orthoptera: Phasmidae)". Treubia: A Journal on Ecology of the Indo-Australian Archipelago. 23 (1): 47–52. ISSN   0082-6340.
  15. ↑ Costa, JT (2006). "Mantodea and Phasmatodea: Mantids and Walkingsticks". The Other Insect Societies. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. 135–46. ISBN   978-0-674-02163-1.
  16. ↑ Dossey, Aaron T.; Gottardo, Marco; Whitaker, John M.; Roush, William R.; Edison, Arthur S. (2009). "Alkyldimethylpyrazines in the defensive spray of Phyllium westwoodii: a first for order Phasmatodea". Journal of Chemical Ecology. 35 (8): 861–70. doi:10.1007/s10886-009-9666-9. PMC   3787517 . PMID   19685263.
  17. ↑ Meinwald, Jerrold; Chadha, M.S.; Hurst, J.J.; Eisner, Thomas (1962). "Defense mechanisms of arthropods – IX anisomorphal, the secretion of a phasmid insect". Tetrahedron Letters. 3 (1): 29–33. doi:10.1016/S0040-4039(00)62038-5.
  18. ↑ Eisner, Thomas (1965). "Defensive spray of a phasmid insect". Science. 148 (3672): 966–8. Bibcode:1965Sci...148..966E. doi:10.1126/science.148.3672.966. PMID   17751052. S2CID   9573732.
  19. ↑ Meinwald, Jerrold; Happ, George M.; Labows, John; Eisner, Thomas (1966). "Cyclopentanoid terpene biosynthesis in a phasmid insect and in catmint". Science. 151 (3706): 79–80. Bibcode:1966Sci...151...79M. doi:10.1126/science.151.3706.79. PMID   5908966. S2CID   42468992.
  20. ↑ Lin, Y. M.; Chow, Y. S. (1986). "Actinidine, a defensive secretion of stick insect, Megacrania alpheus Westwood (Orthoptera: Phasmatidae)". Journal of Entomological Science. 21 (2): 97–101. doi:10.18474/0749-8004-21.2.97.
  21. ↑ Prescott, T.; Bramham, J.; Zompro, O.; Maciver, S.K. (2010). "Actinidine and glucose from the defensive secretion of the stick insect Megacrania nigrosulfurea". Biochemical Systematics and Ecology. 37 (6): 759–60. doi:10.1016/j.bse.2009.11.002.
  22. ↑ Ho, Hsiao-Yung; Chow, Y. S. (1993). "Chemical identification of defensive secretion of stick insect, Megacrania tsudai Shiraki". Journal of Chemical Ecology. 19 (1): 39–46. doi:10.1007/BF00987469. PMID   24248509. S2CID   7885579.
  23. ↑ Wu, I‐Hsin; Liu, Hsui‐Huei; Chen, Yu‐Yen; Tsai, Cheng‐Lung; Yu, Yi‐Ching; Hsiao, Chung‐Yi; Yeh, Wen‐Bin (2020). "Life cycles, phenology and genetic structure of endangered Megacrania tsudai Shiraki (Phasmatodea: Phasmatidae): Male individuals from a geographic parthenogenesis species". Entomological Science. 23 (2): 183–92. doi:10.1111/ens.12410. S2CID   216322536.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.