Migration studies

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Migration studies is the academic study of human migration. Migration studies is an interdisciplinary field which draws on anthropology, prehistory, history, economics, law, sociology and postcolonial studies.

Contents

Origin and development of migration studies

Migration studies did not develop along a uni-linear path and it has developed with significantly different trajectories in different academic cultures and traditions. Migration studies does not exist as a self-contained discipline and instead finds its heritage in a variety of places. Developments in the sociology of migration, the study of the history of human migration, theories and policies concerning labour migration, and postcolonial studies all fed into the growth of migration studies. The development of migration studies is also bound up with the growth in interdisciplinary pursuits which has resulted from the popularisation of postmodern thought in the past thirty years. In recent years, scholarship which takes interest in humanitarian issues has become increasingly popular. In part, this reflects displacement and refugee movements which have resulted from conflicts throughout the end of the 20th century and at the turn of the 21st century.

Key topics in migration studies

Migration histories

Archaeological studies frequently focus on early human migration flows, the spread of civilisation and the development of trade routes and settlements by early humans. The debate over migrationism and diffusionism features prominently in archaeological approaches to migration studies. The study of empire, colonisation, and diaspora constitute significant themes in historical approaches to migration studies. This has, for instance, manifested in studies of the forced migrations during the 1947 Partition of India, [1] < the internal displacement of the 1861-1865 American Civil War, or the Great Migration of 6 million African Americans from the rural southern states to the urban Northeast, Midwest, and West. [2] [3] Scholars can research migration histories through a variety of methods including quantitative approaches based on censuses and government documents, social histories, the examination of material culture, or through autobiography.

Literature and the arts

One branch of research in migration studies involves the consideration of how migration, settlement, and diaspora interact with literature and the arts. For example, in a 2017 paper Dr Michelle Keown discussed how US military imperialism and Marshallese migration affected the poetry of Kathy Jetnil-Kijiner. [4] Researchers have also examined migration in relation to the circulation of music, particularly of folk-songs. [5] Migration is a recurring theme in much popular media, such as in Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie's 2013 novel Americanah or in contemporary film such as Roma (2018), consequently, discussions on migration and the arts are some of the more publicly-visible avenues of scholarship in migration studies. More recently, attention has been paid to how theatre becomes a site for migrant performing their agency within public spaces. [6] In 2020 article, Kasia Lech studied responses to Brexit by multilingual UK-based migrant theatre practitioners, Situating their work in "the paradox of simultaneous hyper- and in-visibility of immigrants in the UK" and argued that "the migrant perspective is crucial for the debate on Brexit as part of the broader European Union’s crisis of commonality and solidarity.". [7]

Urbanism

Scholars of migration in the context of urbanism consider the dynamics of how cities and migrant populations interact. This can include issues of town planning, issues of ghettoisation and social exclusion, and processes of integration and community-building. Urbanists may also consider how one can regard refugee camps as global cities, and how to plan, develop, and operate these camp spaces.

Economics

The economic results of migration are a popular area of research and stimulate much consequent debate. Perhaps[ original research? ] the most publicly-discussed topic within the economics of migration is transnational labour migration and how migrants are either encouraged or discouraged to move as a result of economic considerations, this remains a controversial and multifaceted topic. Migration is researched in relation to its impacts on both sending and destination communities. The study of how migrant workers send remittances is another frequent topic for scholars studying the economics of migration. [8] Some research has focused on novel topics including the internal economies of refugee camps, [9] the economics of human trafficking, and how employment law affects undocumented workers. [10] [11]

Demography

Studies of migration demography take a statistical approach to the size, structure, and distribution of migrant populations. One can research migrant communities either in isolation or as part of a broader population. Demographic studies of migration often consider issues such as migrant health, welfare, employment, and education in relation to the non-migrant population of a given society.

Public attitudes

Migration scholars investigate migrant reception through surveying and studying how host populations understand and respond to immigration. This might include feelings concerning refugee reception and support, considerations of multiculturalism and integration, and attitudes towards government policies. Frequently, scholars investigate how non-migrant publics consider migrants, this has resulted in a relative lack of scholarship which considers the opposite dynamic.[ citation needed ]

Critical border studies

Critical border studies (CBS) explores alternatives to how territorial borders are currently imagined and operated. Part of this approach means identifying and investigating how borders function, to whose benefit these borders function, and whom such borders affect negatively. [12] Scholars[ which? ] associated with critical border studies regard borders as part of a system of performances by which states maintain and exert power over territory; this intersects with understandings of sovereignty and securitization. Scholars associated with this branch of migration studies are frequently critical of how states may rely on a monopoly of force to assert governance over given territories, consequently strains of anarchist philosophy, postcolonial thought, and anti-statism are popular within critical border studies. [13]

Immigration law

Immigration law necessarily affects many subsections of migration studies and it is consequently a point of interest for a wide range of migration scholars. One can approach the subject of immigration law through sub-national, national, and international frameworks. The study of immigration law frequently intersects with discussions of human rights.

Migrant il/legality and "crimmigration"

In common with approaches found in critical border studies, many scholars consider how systems which govern migration construct illegality and thereby criminalize migrant populations. [14] [15] This approach displaces the discussion of illegality from the migrant subject and instead scrutinises the behaviour of nation-state governments. [16] Critical approaches to the construction of citizenship recur within this strand of scholarship. [17] This approach to understanding migration is particularly relevant for scholars working on issues involving undocumented populations. The term "crimmigration" has emerged as a way to conceptualize how migrants are frequently treated as criminals, deviants, and security risks. [18]

Displacement

Forced migration

Forced migration is the coerced movement of humans from their origin to a (frequently undesired) new destination. Studies concerning forced migration explore the processes by which people are displaced, how destination countries receive and support displaced people, and the experiences of forced migrations. Studies concerning forced migration frequently overlap with issues concerning genocide studies, settler colonialism, humanitarianism, deportation and ethnic cleansing. The term "forced" is frequently debated for its suggestion that there is a clear distinction between voluntary and involuntary human movement.

Refugee studies

Scholars focusing on refugee studies typically consider the experiences of people affected by transnational forced-migration processes. The definition of a refugee varies considerably within the refugee-studies community, with some insisting on the strict definitions of 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees and others relying on more fluid or amorphous definitions.

Refugee studies represent a distinct overarching group within migration studies as it differs significantly from the topics which are central to more voluntary phenomena such as labour-market migration. The concept of refugees as weapons is analyzed as a forced experience of a mass exodus of refugees from a state to a hostile state as a "weapon."

Internal displacement

Internally displaced persons have been compelled to move from their origin but have not crossed national boundaries. This means that they do not meet the Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees definition of a refugee, even though they may have similar experiences, and though the conditions which led to their displacement may closely resemble those which provoke refugee movements. Studies on internal displacement frequently focus on the complications raised by the fact that such migrants are not supported by the same international frameworks which can provide for refugees and other transnational migrants.

Climate change and environmental factors

Scholars increasingly study how climate change is interacting with human migration,[ citation needed ] something which is discussed to a much greater extent in relation to migrating animals. Key issues in studies of climate change and migration revolve around how climate change will affect coastal communities, small-island nations, and communities living in areas likely to become deserts. [19] Essentially, this topic considers how climate change may cause large-scale human movement. The idea of "climate refugees" is a key focus of debate within this topic, particularly as this brings a novel category to established understandings of refugee status. [20] Beyond climate change, there is a long history of human migration because of other environmental factors. Studies concerned with early human migrations frequently consider how humanity responded to issues such as adapting to the harsh cold of the Late Pleistocene.

Gender and sexuality

Gender

Scholars focusing on gender consider how gender structures migrant experience, the treatment and reception of migrants, and how migration interacts with the performance of gender. Contemporary treatments of migration and gender tend to take an intersectional approach where gender is part of a dynamic set of identities including class, race, age, and health. [21] Studies which consider gendered experiences of migration look at topics such as gender-based violence against migrant populations, gendered differences in asylum and detention processes, and how family dynamics are affected by migration processes.

Queer migration

Scholars influenced by approaches from the growing field of Queer studies explore how queer sexualities affect understandings of migration. One approach involves critically engaging with "the intersectionality of nationality and sexuality, [to show] how national norms and values can be used instrumentally by social and political actors" to affect human movement. [22] For example, topics in Queer migration might include how LGBT+ asylum seekers are differently affected by asylum processes, how discrimination against LGBT+ people affects their migration experiences, or how migrant welfare is stratified according to sexuality.

Humanitarianism

A recent trend in migration studies scholarship has been to critically evaluate how humanitarian actors interact with immigrants, particularly in the context of conflict environments, disaster relief, and crises. The refugee camp has become a significant point of interest for scholars working on the intersection of migration and humanitarianism, especially in relation to biopower. [23] Recently, there have been increased efforts to critically engage with how humanitarian actors deliver aid and the ethics of humanitarianism in the context of migration. [24] This criticism of humanitarian actors has led to discussions of the links between carceral systems and humanitarianism.

Epidemiology

In epidemiology, an "immigration study" is a method of understanding the relative importance of inherited genetics and environmental factor in medical conditions whose incidence varies around the world. It examines the incidence of conditions in populations who have moved (or whose recent ancestors have moved) between places at different rates. Often the immigrant population can be shown to have similar rates to the population of the new location, suggesting that environmental factors such as diet, obesity and exercise are the dominant determinants. [25]

Assimilation

The ethics of researching migration

Research on human migration may be used to enforce or inform the strategies of national governments and law enforcement bodies. For instance, studying how undocumented immigrants access healthcare may enable a government to clamp down on these practices, or critical studies of clandestine migration may inform border securitisation policies which might restrict those same migration flows. Furthermore, migrants frequently represent vulnerable or marginalised subjects and scholarly research into migrant groups might compound or worsen conditions for these groups. The ethics of how to navigate the tensions and questions raised by carrying out research on migration, and the consequences of investigating sensitive topics within migration studies, are becoming an increasingly discussed topic. [26] This is part of a broader development of greater reflexivity regarding research ethics in the social sciences.

Teaching

Migration studies is a relatively new specialism, consequently many universities and colleges have yet to develop degree programmes which formally address the topic. [27] Whilst migration studies rarely exist as an available major for undergraduate study, Master's degrees which focus on migration and international movement are increasingly available. However, the availability of this focus varies greatly by region and academic culture. At present, most teaching of migration studies as a distinct topic is focused in European universities. [28]

Europe

In Europe, the University of Copenhagen, Aalborg University, Malmö University, Utrecht University, Radboud University Nijmegen, Université de Liège, University of Côte d'Azur Linköping University, University of Neuchâtel, Universität Osnabrück, University of A Coruña, The University of Sussex, University of Riga, University of Deusto, The University of Oxford, the University of Kent (Brussels School of International Studies) and Vrije Universiteit Brussel [29] (Brussels school of Governance) all offer graduate training in migration studies. [30] [31] [32] [33] [34] [35] [36] [37] [38] [39] As of 2017, several of these universities work collaboratively to provide a single degree which can be acquired through work at multiple participating institutions. [40] [41] This represents teaching in Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Germany, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, France, Latvia, and Spain.

Africa

Few African universities offer an explicit focus on migration studies, however programmes are available in South Africa, Egypt and Ghana. The University of the Witwatersrand offers degree programmes in migration studies at both undergraduate and graduate levels. [42] The American University in Cairo currently offers a Master's degree in migration and refugee studies. [43] University of Ghana runs a Master's degree and PhD programme in migration studies through their Centre for Migration Studies. [44]

North America

United States

Universities and colleges in the United States have been slow to develop degree programmes which explicitly focus on migration studies and have lagged behind European institutions in this regard. [45] Whilst there has been a growth in migration studies within disciplines, there has not been the same attention to interdisciplinary approaches or the establishment of migration studies as a freestanding field. [46] PhD programmes which focus on migration studies are very rare, however, The University of San Francisco, DePaul University, and City University of New York offer terminal Master's degrees in migration studies. Migration studies are increasingly available as an undergraduate minor-subject, with the University of California San Diego among the first to offer such a minor. [47] Since 2015, [48] the University of California Los Angeles also offers a minor in International Migration Studies. [49] Much teaching on international migration in the United States is instead framed as ethnic studies, Latin American studies. or Border Studies. Migration is also frequently available as a specialisation within sociology, economics, and political science degree programmes. Diasporic identity and the history and consequences of human movement are also extensively explored in African American studies or Africana studies programmes.

Canada

In Canada, Ryerson University (now Toronto Metropolitan University) has developed a graduate programme in Immigration and Settlement studies whereas Carleton University offers an undergraduate degree in Migration and Diaspora Studies. [50] [51] Similarly to the situation in the United States, Canadian universities frequently address the study of migration as a topic within other disciplines rather than as a field in its own right. Thus, whilst there may be few programmes which explicitly address migration in their titles, there is still a broad range on research and teaching on the topic through other avenues.

South and Central America

Few universities in South and Central America offer named programmes in migration studies. In Mexico, Universidad Iberoamericana co-delivers a Master's programme with the University of San Francisco through an optional exchange semester. [52]

Asia

Tel Aviv University offers a terminal master's degree in Global Migration & Policy. [53] Central University of Gujarat offers a Master's and PhD in Diaspora studies. [54] In the Philippines, Miriam College offers an MA in migration studies. [55] In Nepal, migration is included in the graduate programmes in population studies at Tribhuvan University. Similarly, in Sri Lanka at the University of Colombo the graduate programs in demography give significant attention to the study of migration. [56] National University of Singapore has a migration studies research cluster located in its Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, however, does not offer a degree programme on this topic. [57] Similarly, the Chinese University of Hong Kong hosts a research centre on migration and mobility but does not operate a degree programme. [58] In Russia, no university offers a degree in migration studies, however, the Higher School of Economics organises a regular seminar on migration studies through its Institute for Social Policy. [59]

Antipodes

Australia

The University of Melbourne offers graduate training in migration studies through an interdisciplinary PhD programme. [60] The Australian Catholic University has developed a graduate diploma in Australian Migration Law and Practice. [61] The University of Sydney and University of Queensland do not offer degree programmes in migration studies, however both universities have dedicated research clusters and teach modules on topics within migration studies. [62] [63]

New Zealand

Victoria University Wellington offers a Master's programme in Migration Studies, alongside a postgraduate diploma, or postgraduate certificate. [64] The Centre for Global Migrations at University of Otago addresses issues and themes in migration studies, and The University of Waikato used to host a Migration Research Group from 1993 to 2009, neither university offers a degree in migration studies. [65] [66]

Research activity, publications, and outreach

Journals

As a rapidly growing field of study, there are numerous journals dedicated to migration studies. The following titles explicitly focus on migration studies, most are peer-reviewed. [67]

Conferences

Research Centres

Think Tanks

The following think tanks address issues which overlap with migration studies.

Notable Academics

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Emigration</span> Act of leaving ones country or region to settle in another

Emigration is the act of leaving a resident country or place of residence with the intent to settle elsewhere. Conversely, immigration describes the movement of people into one country from another. A migrant emigrates from their old country, and immigrates to their new country. Thus, both emigration and immigration describe migration, but from different countries' perspectives.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human migration</span> Movement of people for their benefit

Human migration is the movement of people from one place to another, with intentions of settling, permanently or temporarily, at a new location. The movement often occurs over long distances and from one country to another, but internal migration is the dominant form of human migration globally.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Forced displacement</span> Coerced movement of a person or persons away from their home or home region

Forced displacement is an involuntary or coerced movement of a person or people away from their home or home region. The UNHCR defines 'forced displacement' as follows: displaced "as a result of persecution, conflict, generalized violence or human rights violations".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Immigration to Australia</span>

The Australian continent was first settled when ancestors of Indigenous Australians arrived via the islands of Maritime Southeast Asia and New Guinea over 50,000 years ago.

Since 1945, immigration to the United Kingdom, controlled by British immigration law and to an extent by British nationality law, has been significant, in particular from the former territories of the British Empire and the European Union.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Repatriation</span> Return of a thing or person to their country

Repatriation is the return of a thing or person to its or their country of origin, respectively. The term may refer to non-human entities, such as converting a foreign currency into the currency of one's own country, as well as the return of military personnel to their place of origin following a war. It also applies to diplomatic envoys, international officials as well as expatriates and migrants in time of international crisis. For refugees, asylum seekers and illegal migrants, repatriation can mean either voluntary return or deportation.

Transnationalism is a research field and social phenomenon grown out of the heightened interconnectivity between people and the receding economic and social significance of boundaries among nation states.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Immigration</span> Movement of people into another country or region to which they are not native

Immigration is the international movement of people to a destination country of which they are not usual residents or where they do not possess nationality in order to settle as permanent residents. Commuters, tourists, and other short-term stays in a destination country do not fall under the definition of immigration or migration; seasonal labour immigration is sometimes included, however.

Illegal immigration is the migration of people into a country in violation of that country's immigration laws, or the continuous residence in a country without the legal right to do so. Illegal immigration tends to be financially upward, from poorer to richer countries. Illegal residence in another country creates the risk of detention, deportation, and other imposed sanctions.

The Refugee Studies Centre (RSC) was established in 1982, as part of the University of Oxford's Department of International Development, in order to promote the understanding of the causes and consequences of forced migration and to improve the lives of some of the world's most marginalised people. Its philosophy is to "combine world-class academic research with a commitment to improving the lives and situations for some of the world's most disadvantaged people".

Institute for the Study of International Migration is a private research institute located in Washington, DC. Founded in 1998 as part of Georgetown University's School of Foreign Service, it is associated with the Georgetown University Law Center. The Institute for the Study of International Migration (ISIM) is an innovative multidisciplinary center that studies the social, economic, environmental, and political dimensions of international migration.

Sarah J. Mahler is an American author and cultural anthropologist. She was part of a group of anthropologists attempting to change migration studies to a more comprehensive way to understand how migrants crossing international borders remain tied to their homelands and how cultural practices and identities reflect influences from past and present contexts, called "transnational migration."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jørgen Carling</span>

Jørgen Carling is a Norwegian researcher specializing on international migration. He holds a PhD in Human Geography from the University of Oslo and is Research Professor of Migration and Transnationalism Studies. Carling has worked at the Peace Research Institute Oslo (PRIO) since 2002, where he has been Research Director since 2012.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2015 European migrant crisis</span> 2010s refugee crisis in the European Union

The 2015 European migrant crisis was a period of significantly increased movement of refugees and migrants into Europe, namely from the Middle East. An estimated 1.3 million people came to the continent to request asylum, the most in a single year since World War II. They were mostly Syrians, but also included a significant number of people from Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iraq, Nigeria, Eritrea, and the Balkans. The increase in asylum seekers has been attributed to factors such as the escalation of various wars in the Middle East and ISIL's territorial and military dominance in the region due to the Arab Winter, as well as Lebanon, Jordan, and Egypt ceasing to accept Syrian asylum seekers.

The Center for Migration Studies of New York (CMS) is an educational institute and nonpartisan think tank based in New York City that studies domestic immigration and international migration issues. The organization is devoted to public policies that safeguard the dignity and rights of migrants worldwide. In recent years, CMS has been known for producing research addressing the U.S. immigrant detention system, the U.S. and global refugee protection systems, and data on the unauthorized immigrant population in the United States. CMS is a member of the Scalabrini International Migration Network, a global network of migrant shelters, service centers, and other institutions along migrant corridors and in border and destination communities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">François Crépeau</span> Canadian lawyer and professor

François Crépeau, is a Canadian lawyer and Full Professor at the Faculty of Law at McGill University, as well as a former director of the McGill Centre for Human Rights and Legal Pluralism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alexander Betts (political scientist)</span> British political scientist

Alexander Betts is Professor of Forced Migration and International Affairs, William Golding Senior Fellow in Politics at Brasenose College, and Associate Head of the Social Sciences Division at the University of Oxford.

The migration and asylum policy of the European Union is within the area of freedom, security and justice, established to develop and harmonise principles and measures used by member countries of the European Union to regulate migration processes and to manage issues concerning asylum and refugee status in the European Union.

<i>World Migration Report</i>

The flagship publication series of the International Organization for Migration, the World Migration Report presents data and information on human migration together with analysis of complex and emerging migration issues.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Centre for Advanced Migration Studies</span>

The Centre for Advanced Migration Studies (AMIS), is a research centre at the University of Copenhagen in Denmark. It engages in interdisciplinary research and postgraduate teaching concerning human migration. The centre is part of a growing trend in recognizing migration studies as a distinct field of academic research.

References

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