Approximate locations of suspected minefields in Croatia in 2006
Minefields in Croatia cover 258.00 square kilometres (99.61 square miles) of territory.[1] As of 2020, the minefields (usually known as "mine suspected areas") are located in 45[1]cities and municipalities within 8[1]counties. These areas are thought to contain approximately 17,285[1] land mines, in addition to unexploded ordnance left over from the Croatian War of Independence. Land mines were used extensively during the war by all sides in the conflict; about 1.5 million were deployed. They were intended to strengthen defensive positions lacking sufficient weapons or manpower, but played a limited role in the fighting.
After the war 13,000 square kilometres (5,000 square miles) of territory was initially suspected to contain mines, but this estimate was later reduced to 1,174 square kilometres (453 square miles) after physical inspection. As of 2013[update]demining programs were coordinated through governmental bodies such as the Croatian Mine Action Centre, which was hiring private demining companies employing 632 deminers. The areas are marked with 11,454[1] warning signs.
As of 4April2013[update], 509 people had been killed and 1,466 injured by land mines in Croatia since the war; with these figures including 60 deminers and seven Croatian Army engineers killed during demining operations. In the immediate aftermath of the war, there were about 100 civilian mine casualties per year, but this decreased to below ten per year by 2010 through demining, mine-awareness, and education programs. Croatia has spent approximately €450 million on demining since 1998, when the process was taken over by private contractors coordinated by the Croatian Mine Action Centre. The cost to complete the demining is estimated at €500 million or more. Economic loss to Croatia (due to loss of land use within suspected minefields) is estimated at €47.3 million per year.
Land mines were first used by the JNA in early 1991, before its withdrawal from Croatia, to protect military barracks and other facilities. Even JNA facilities located in urban centers were secured in this way, using mines such as the PROM-1bounding mine and MRUD directional anti-personnel mine.[10] The Croatian Army (HV) and Croatian police began laying land mines in late 1991, relying heavily on them to stop advances by the JNA and the Army of the RSK (ARSK) until early 1992. These early minefields were laid with little documentation. In 1992 the ARSK increased its use of mines to secure the front line,[11] largely due to its limited number of troops. Consequently, the ARSK constructed static defensive lines (consisting of trenches, bunkers and large numbers of mines designed to protect thinly-manned defences) to delay HV offensives. This approach was necessitated by the limited depth of RSK territory and the lack of reserves available with which to counterattack (or block) breaches of its defensive line, which meant that the ARSK was unable to employ defence in depth tactics.[12] The combination of poor documentation of minefield locations and the lack of markings (or fencing) led to frequent injuries to military personnel caused by mines laid by friendly forces.[13] It is estimated that a total of 1.5 million land mines were laid during the war.[10]
The HV successfully used anti-tank mines as obstacles in combination with infantry anti-tank weapons, destroying or disabling more than 300 JNA tanks (particularly during defensive operations in Slavonia).[10] Conversely, anti-personnel mines deployed by the ARSK proved less effective against the HV during operations Flash and Storm in 1995. During these operations, the HV crossed (or bypassed) many ARSK minefields based on information from land-based and unmanned aerial vehicle reconnaissance of the movement of ARSK patrols, civilian populations, and the activation of mines by wildlife.[14] Out of the 224 HV personnel killed in operations Flash and Storm, only 15 fatalities were caused by land mines. Similarly, out of 966 wounded in the two offensives only 92 were injured by land mines.[15]
Casualties
As of 4April2013[update] a total of 509 people had been killed and 1,466 injured by land mines in 1,352 incidents in Croatia.[16] There were 557 civilian casualties from land mines between 1991 and 1995, during the war and in its immediate aftermath. Between 1996 and 1998 there were approximately 100 civilian casualties from land mines per year in Croatia,[17] but the number gradually decreased to less than ten per year by 2010.[18] During the war, 57 HV troops were killed or injured by mines in 1992.[19] In 1995, 169 were killed or injured (most during operations Flash and Storm)[15] out of 130,000 HV troops involved.[20] Seven HV engineers were killed and 18 injured by land mines during HV mine clearance operations between 1996 and 1998.[17] Civilian casualties include 60 deminers killed since 1998.[21]
Croatia has established an extensive framework to assist those injured by mines and the families of mine victims. This assistance includes emergency and ongoing medical care, physical rehabilitation, psychological and social support, employment and social-integration assistance, public awareness, and access to public services. Institutions and organizations supporting mine victims include a wide range of governmental bodies and non-governmental organizations (NGOs).[22]
Existing minefields
Standard minefield sign
As of February2024[update], minefields in Croatia cover 91.2 square kilometres (35.2 square miles) of territory. The minefields (usually known as "mine suspected areas" or MSA) are located in 4 counties and 21 cities and municipalities. These areas are thought to contain approximately c.10,052 land mines, in addition to unexploded ordnance left over from the Croatian War of Independence.[23][24]
The area suspected of containing land mines is marked using more than 6,255 warning signs. Based on the analysis of the area structure in MSAs, at the end of 2022, after the demining, technical survey and general and supplementary general survey, it was determined that 98.7% of MSAs are forests and forest areas, while 1.2% MSAs of the Republic of Croatia are agricultural land, and 0.1% of MSAs are categorized as "other areas" (water, wetlands, rocks, landslides, rocks, shores, etc.).[25][26]
Land mines are a safety issue for populations living near minefields. In 2008, an estimated 920,000 people in Croatia were endangered by their proximity to mined areas (20.8 percent of the population). Land mines are also a significant problem for development, because a substantial portion of the minefields in Croatia are on agricultural land and in forests. Some drainage channels are consequently inaccessible for maintenance, resulting in intermittent flooding; this is particularly severe in areas bordering Hungary. Similar problems are caused by mines laid on the banks of the Drava, Kupa, and Sava rivers.[34] The presence of land mines adversely affected post-war recovery in rural areas, reducing the amount of available agricultural land, impeding development, and affecting the quality of life for people in mined areas.[35] In addition to agriculture, the most significant economic problem caused by mines in Croatia is their impact on tourism (especially on forested areas and hunting in areas inland from the Adriatic Sea coast). In 2012, it was estimated that the economy of Croatia lost 355 million kuna (c. 47.3 million euros) a year from the effects of mine-suspected areas on the economy.[36]
Because of the importance of tourism to the Croatian economy, areas frequented by tourists (or near major tourist routes) have been given priority for demining.[34] Other safety-related areas receiving demining priority are settlements, commercial and industrial facilities and all documented minefields. Agricultural land, infrastructure, and forests are grouped in three priority categories depending on their economic significance. National parks in Croatia were also demined as top-priority areas, along with areas significant for fire protection.[37] Theft of minefield signs is a significant problem, and is particularly pronounced in areas with concerns among the local population that the signs harm tourism. The signs are regularly replaced, sometimes with concrete or masonry structures to display them instead of metal poles.[38] Since the 1990s, only one tourist has been injured by a land mine in Croatia.
The Government of Croatia established several bodies to address the problem of land mines in Croatia; foremost among them are the Office for Mine Action and the Croatian Mine Action Centre. The Office for Mine Action is a government agency tasked with providing expert analysis and advice on demining. The Croatian Mine Action Centre is a public-sector body tasked with planning and conducting demining surveys, accepting cleared areas, marking mine-suspected areas, quality assurance, demining research and development, and victim assistance. The work of the Croatian Mine Action Centre is supervised by the Office for Mine Action.[39][40]
As refugees flee to Europe, from Syria and other Middle Eastern nations, some are migrating through Croatia due to Hungary's recent closing of its borders. These immigrants trying to cross to Europe are seeking Croatia's help in finding safe routes of passage.
Mine awareness and education
Mine-awareness billboard
Croatia has implemented a mine-awareness educational program aimed at reducing the frequency of mine-related accidents through an ongoing information campaign. The program is conducted by the Croatian Red Cross, the Ministry of Science, Education and Sports and several NGOs in cooperation with the Croatian Mine Action Centre. The Croatian Mine Action Centre actively supports NGOs to develop as many programs as possible and attract new NGOs to mine-awareness and educational activities.[41] It maintains an accessible online database with cartographic information on the location of mine-suspected areas in Croatia.[42]
One mine-awareness campaign involving billboard advertising attracted criticism from the Ministry of Tourism and the Croatian National Tourist Board (CNTB) because the signs were placed in tourist areas, far from any mine-suspected areas. The Ministry of Tourism and the CNTB welcomed the effort's humanitarian aspect, but considered the signs a potential source of unwarranted negative reaction from tourists.[43] Tourist guidebooks of Croatia include warnings about the danger posed by mines in the country, and provide general information about their location.[44]
At the end of the Croatian War of Independence, approximately 13,000 square kilometres (5,000 square miles) of the country was suspected of containing land mines.[45] During the war and in its immediate aftermath, demining was performed by HV engineers[17] supported by police and civil defence personnel. Wartime demining was focused on clearance tasks in support of military operations and the safety of the civilian population. In 1996 the Parliament of Croatia enacted the Demining Act, tasking police with its organization and the government-owned AKD Mungos company with the demining itself.[46] By April 1998 approximately 40 square kilometres (15 square miles) had been cleared of mines, and the initial estimate of minefield areas was reduced after inspection. By 2003 the entire territory of Croatia was reviewed, and the minefield area was reduced to 1,174 square kilometres (453 square miles).[47]
Since May 1998[48] the Croatian Mine Action Centre has been tasked with the development of demining plans, projects, technical inspections, cleared-area handover, demining quality assurance, expert assistance and the coordination of mine-clearance activities.[40] The demining is performed by 35 licensed companies, employing 632 demining professionals and 58 auxiliary personnel. The companies do their work with 681 metal detectors, 55 mine rollers and mine flails, and 15 mine-detection dogs.[49] Mine-clearing machines include locally designed models produced by DOK-ING.[50] Deminers typically earn €.50–1.20 for each 1 square metre (11 square feet) cleared, or €800–900 a month.[51]
Since 1998, demining has been funded through the government and by donations. From 1998 to 2011, donations amounted to €75.5 million (17 percent of the total of €450 million spent on demining during that period). Most donations were from foreign contributors, including NGOs and foreign governments (among them Japan, Germany, Monaco, Luxembourg and the United States). The European Union was also a significant contributor during that period, providing €20.7 million.[52]As of 2013[update], the Croatian Mine Action Centre has been allocated approximately 400 million kuna (c. 53 million euros) a year for demining.[50] In 2011, an estimated further €500 million (or more) was needed to remove all remaining land mines from Croatia by 2019,[53] the deadline for land-mine clearance set by the Ottawa Treaty.[54] The Croatian Mine Action Centre spends approximately 500,000 kuna (c. 66,600 euros) a year to maintain minefield warning signs (including the replacement of stolen signs).[45]
As of April 2017, approximately 446 km² containing around 43,000 potential landmines was yet to be cleared.[55]
On July 28, 2022, the Croatian government submitted to the Parliament the Proposal for the National Mine Action Program until 2026, which defines the demining strategy for mine-suspected areas and the deadline for completion by county.[56]
Operation Storm was the last major battle of the Croatian War of Independence and a major factor in the outcome of the Bosnian War. It was a decisive victory for the Croatian Army (HV), which attacked across a 630-kilometre (390 mi) front against the self-declared proto-state Republic of Serbian Krajina (RSK), and a strategic victory for the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (ARBiH). The HV was supported by the Croatian special police advancing from the Velebit Mountain, and the ARBiH located in the Bihać pocket, in the Army of the Republic of Serbian Krajina's (ARSK) rear. The battle, launched to restore Croatian control of 10,400 square kilometres of territory, representing 18.4% of the territory it claimed, and Bosniak control of Western Bosnia, was the largest European land battle since World War II. Operation Storm commenced at dawn on 4 August 1995 and was declared complete on the evening of 7 August, despite significant mopping-up operations against pockets of resistance lasting until 14 August.
Šid is a town and municipality located in the Srem District of the autonomous province of Vojvodina, Serbia. It has a population of 14,893, while the municipality has 34,188 inhabitants. A border crossing between Serbia and Croatia is located in the town.
Demining or mine clearance is the process of removing land mines from an area. In military operations, the object is to rapidly clear a path through a minefield, and this is often done with devices such as mine plows and blast waves. By contrast, the goal of humanitarian demining is to remove all of the landmines to a given depth and make the land safe for human use. Specially trained dogs are also used to narrow down the search and verify that an area is cleared. Mechanical devices such as flails and excavators are sometimes used to clear mines.
Operation Flash was a brief Croatian Army (HV) offensive conducted against the forces of the self-declared proto-state Republic of Serbian Krajina (RSK) from 1–3 May 1995. The offensive occurred in the later stages of the Croatian War of Independence and was the first major confrontation after ceasefire and economic cooperation agreements were signed between Croatia and the RSK in 1994. The last organised RSK resistance formally ceased on 3 May, with the majority of troops surrendering the next day near Pakrac, although mop-up operations continued for another two weeks.
The United Nations Confidence Restoration Operation in Croatia, commonly abbreviated UNCRO, was a United Nations (UN) peacekeeping mission in Croatia. It was established under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter and approved by the UN Security Council (UNSC) Resolution 981 on 31 March 1995. UNCRO inherited personnel and infrastructure from the United Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR). Its command was located in Zagreb; the peacekeeping troops were deployed in four sectors named North, South, East, and West. Twenty different countries contributed troops to the mission.
Krka is a river in Croatia's Dalmatia region, known for its numerous waterfalls. It is 73 km (45 mi) long and its basin covers an area of 2,088 km2 (806 sq mi). It was known in ancient Greek as Kyrikos, or may be also as Catarbates by the ancient Greeks, it was known to the ancient Romans as Titius, Corcoras, or Korkoras.
The Battle of the Miljevci Plateau was a clash between the Croatian Army and forces of the Republic of Serbian Krajina (RSK), fought on 21–23 June 1992, during the Croatian War of Independence. The battle represented the culmination of a series of skirmishes between the HV and the RSK forces in Northern Dalmatia, after the implementation of the Vance plan and deployment of the United Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR) began. The skirmishes occurred in the pink zones—areas under control of the RSK, but outside the UN Protected Areas established by the Vance plan.
The region of Nagorno-Karabakh and areas around it are considered to be some of the most heavily mined regions of the former Soviet Union. Mines were laid from early 1990s by both Azerbaijani and Armenian forces during and after the First Nagorno-Karabakh War. The worst-affected areas are along the fortified former contact line between Azerbaijani and Armenian forces, in particular in the districts of Aghdam, Fuzuli and Jabrayil. According to military experts from both Azerbaijan and Armenia, the ground in those areas is covered with "carpets of land mines." The region has the highest per capita rate in the world of accidents due to unexploded ordnance.
Operation Summer '95 was a joint military offensive of the Croatian Army (HV) and the Croatian Defence Council (HVO) that took place north-west of the Livanjsko Polje, and around Bosansko Grahovo and Glamoč in western Bosnia and Herzegovina. The operation was carried out between 25 and 29 July 1995, during the Croatian War of Independence and the Bosnian War. The attacking force of 8,500 troops commanded by HV's Lieutenant General Ante Gotovina initially encountered strong resistance from the 5,500-strong Army of Republika Srpska (VRS) 2nd Krajina Corps. The HV/HVO pushed the VRS back, capturing about 1,600 square kilometres of territory and consequently intercepting the Knin—Drvar road—a critical supply route of the self-declared Republic of Serbian Krajina (RSK). The operation failed to achieve its declared primary goal of drawing VRS units away from the besieged city of Bihać, but it placed the HV in position to capture the RSK's capital Knin in Operation Storm days later.
Operation Winter '94 was a joint military offensive of the Croatian Army (HV) and the Croatian Defence Council (HVO) fought in southwestern Bosnia and Herzegovina between 29 November and 24 December 1994. The operation formed part of the Croatian War of Independence and the Bosnian War fought between Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and two unrecognized para-states proclaimed by Croatian Serbs and Bosnian Serbs. Both para-states were supported by the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) and Serbia. The JNA pulled out in 1992, but transferred much of its equipment to the Bosnian Serb and Croatian Serb forces as it withdrew.
Operation Jackal, also known as Operation June Dawns, was an offensive of the Bosnian War fought between a combined Croatian Army (HV) and Croatian Defence Council (HVO) army against the Army of Republika Srpska (VRS) from 7–26 June 1992. The offensive was a Croatian pre-emptive strike against the VRS, a Bosnian Serb military formed in May 1992 from Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) units that were stationed in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The HV concluded that the JNA offensive operations of April and May 1992, resulting in the capture of Kupres and much of the Neretva River valley south of Mostar, were aimed at capturing or threatening the Croatian Port of Ploče and possibly Split. To counter this threat, the Croatian leadership deployed the HV, under the command of General Janko Bobetko, to the "Southern Front" including the area in which Operation Jackal was to be conducted.
Operation Tiger was a Croatian Army (HV) offensive conducted in areas of Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina near Dubrovnik between 1 and 13 July 1992. It was designed to push the Army of Republika Srpska (VRS) away from the city towards Popovo field and secure a supply route via Rijeka Dubrovačka, which was gained in early June as the siege of Dubrovnik by the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) was lifted. The operation's success was facilitated by the establishment of the HV's Southern Front command and the successful conclusion of the May–June 1992 operations against the VRS in the Neretva River valley, which concluded with Operation Jackal.
The Vance plan was a peace plan negotiated by the former United States Secretary of State Cyrus Vance in November 1991 during the Croatian War of Independence. At that time, Vance was the Special Envoy of the Secretary-General of the United Nations; he was assisted by United States diplomat Herbert Okun during the negotiations. The plan was designed to implement a ceasefire, demilitarize parts of Croatia that were under the control of Croatian Serbs and the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA), allow the return of refugees, and create favourable conditions for negotiations on a permanent political settlement of the conflict resulting from the breakup of Yugoslavia.
Operation Backstop was a United Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR) military plan designed to guard a portion of the United Nations Protected Areas (UNPAs) against attack by the Croatian Army during the Croatian War of Independence. The operation, developed by the UNPROFOR staff in charge of the UNPA Western Slavonia in 1992, was scheduled to be implemented by two mechanised companies of the Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry (PPCLI) battalion deployed in the area.
The 1st Croatian Guards Corps was a special formation of the Croatian Army directly subordinated to the Ministry of Defence rather than the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Croatia and reporting directly to the President of Croatia. The corps was established in 1994 by the amalgamation of various HV special forces. The 2,500-strong unit was organised into the 1st Croatian Guards Brigade, a multi-purpose special forces combat unit, and four battalions tasked with ensuring the security of the President of Croatia and carrying out ceremonial duties. The HGZ took part in a number of military operations during the Croatian War of Independence and the Bosnian War. It was disbanded in 2000, when its components were amalgamated with other HV units to form the Special Operations Battalion, the 350th Military Intelligence Battalion, and the Honour Guard Battalion.
The CroatianSpecial Operations Forces Command is one of the three independent commands of the Croatian Armed Forces, subordinate to the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Croatia, whose mission is to ensure the combat readiness of the special operations forces for operations in defense of the territorial integrity, sovereignty and independence of the Republic of Croatia and to participate in NATO and coalition-led operations.
There were approximately 30,000 land mines laid in British overseas territory of the Falkland Islands by Argentinian forces following their 1982 invasion. Some of the mines were cleared immediately following the successful British operation to retake the islands, but following a series of accidents, demining operations ceased. In the following years the mine fields were fenced off and, with human access limited, became havens for Falklands flora and the native penguin population. The British government ratified the Ottawa Treaty in 1998 that required the removal of all mines within its territory. Demining operations, which had to be carried out by hand due to the climate and local condition, restarted in 2009. The last mines were cleared in November 2020.
The Vrsar airport bombing was a Yugoslav Air Force strike on the Crljenka airport near Vrsar—an air sports airport in the Istrian peninsula. The airstrike occurred on 21 December 1991, possibly as an attempt to stop the training of Croatian pilots, who had deserted the Yugoslav Air Force and were being trained in Vrsar. Other than being a training facility, the airport had a significant logistical value. However, since an attack was expected only on the more strategically important Pula Airport the airport had little defences, and the Croatians were caught unaware, with the alarm sounding ten minutes after the attack. Two people were killed in the raid, while the airport was damaged.
The 119th Brigade, was a Croatian Army guards brigade formed on 7 September 1991 in Pula, western Croatia, with personnel from the former Territorial Defense Brigade Joakim Rakovac. It is, together with the 1st Home Guard Battalion Pula and the 154th Brigade HV, one of the military units from Istria drafted for the Croatian War of Independence. During the Croatian War of Independence, the 119th Brigade primarily operated in the areas of Glibodol, Saborsko, Plitvice, Rakovica, Tržačka Raštela, as well as Slavonia and Dubrovnik.
The Pula Airport incident occurred on November 10, 1991 in Pula, Croatia, during the Croatian War of Independence, when four technicians were blown up in an attempt to the demine Pula Airport. The airport had been left heavily mined by the Serb forces, who had just left the airport.
Marijan, Davor (2007). Oluja[Storm](PDF) (in Croatian). Croatian Memorial-Documentation Centre of the Homeland War of the Government of Croatia. ISBN978-953-7439-08-8. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2015-09-23. Retrieved 2013-04-18.
Halužan, Slavko (December 1999). "Vojna učinkovitost protupješačkih mina: Iskustva iz Domovinskog rata"[Military effectiveness of anti-personnel land mines: Experience from the Croatian War of Independence]. Polemos: Journal of Interdisciplinary Research on War and Peace (in Croatian). Croatian Sociological Association. 2 (3–4). ISSN1331-5595.
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