Paruroctonus boreus

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Paruroctonus boreus
Northern Scorpion, Paruroctonus boreus.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Subphylum: Chelicerata
Class: Arachnida
Order: Scorpiones
Family: Vaejovidae
Genus: Paruroctonus
Species:
P. boreus
Binomial name
Paruroctonus boreus
(Girard, 1854)

Paruroctonus boreus, commonly known as the northern scorpion, [1] [2] [3] is a species of scorpion in the family Vaejovidae. It is the northernmost species of scorpion, the only scorpion found in Canada, [3] and one of the scorpions with the broadest distribution over North America. [4] [5]

Contents

Taxonomy and naming

The P. boreus species derives its name from members of a group identified as Scorpio (Telegonus) boreus by Charles Girard in 1854. [6] On the basis of typical characteristics which distinguished members of the species from the Vaejovis genus, it was subsequently assigned the Paruroctonus genus name. [7]

The genus name Paruroctonus is composed of the Latin pār which means “equal” or “like”, [8] followed by the term uroctonus, itself constructed from the Greek words οὐρά (ourá) meaning “tail” and κτείνω (kteínō) meaning “to kill”. [9] The Latin epithet boreus is equivalent to the Ancient Greek word Βορέᾱς (Boréās) which means “northern”. [8]

Distribution and habitat

Sightings of P. boreus have been reported over broad areas of North America and it is described as one of the most widely spread scorpions on the continent. [4] [5] In the United States, areas where it is found include the state of Arizona in the Southwest, Nebraska, South Dakota, and North Dakota in the Midwest, and most of the West region (California, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, Oregon, Utah, Washington and Wyoming). In Canada, it is also found in the provinces of British Columbia and Alberta, as far north as 52° N. [5] [7] Several anecdotal reports show them found near Medicine Hat, Alberta during dry years. [3] It is the only scorpion found in Canada, [3] as well as the northernmost species of scorpion in the world, with specimens collected in the Okanagan valley of British Columbia and more widely in Alberta.

The species has been observed to inhabit various terrains typically bordered by tall mountains or low elevation valleys. [10] In northern areas, it has a tendency to mainly occupy sagebrush and comparable dwelling places and reside at low elevations above sea level (200 m). [3] [10] [11] [12] In southern areas, it occupies a greater variety of natural environments and resides at moderate elevations (1900 m). [10] [13] In Idaho, it is most often collected on barren, fissured, or rocky soil on the sloping surface of hills. In the daytime, openings in the soil and stones offer it protection. Individuals are most frequently discovered lying directly on the soil surface and may also be observed on plants up to 50 cm above the soil surface. [14] Specimen collection in 12 distinct plant communities in southeastern Idaho suggested a preference for locations with a minimum vegetation ground coverage of 85%, comprised roughly of broad-leaved plants covering 60% of the ground and grasses covering less than 5%. [15]

Morphology and identification

P. boreus has been described as moderately sized in comparison to other scorpions, with a common light yellow color. There is a black pattern forming a V which centers on the median eyes as well as dim streaks across preabdomen divisions. [1] [7] [16] The adult female is consistently bigger than the male, featuring longer and wider carapace and preabdomen. Females average a total length of around 38.9 mm while the males average around 35.5 mm. Females also demonstrate a lower number of pectinal teeth than males. [14]

Behavior and life cycle

P. boreus scorpions are almost exclusively nocturnal with most movements and hunts taking place during the night. Emergence from their burrows occurs between 21:30 and 23:00, and they will not leave their burrow during rainfall or if temperatures are below 10 °C. If individuals do not emerge by 23:00, they do not seek to feed that night. [17] They are most active within the initial two hours of nighttime with surface activity progressively diminishing thereafter. [14] They also show increased activity in the 3–5 days following a rainfall.

There is a dramatic discrepancy between how much the males and the females move around daily—males will routinely roam up to six times as far as their female counterparts. [12] Having identified an adequate shelter location, females tend to restrict above ground activities to the shelter’s immediate surroundings. They also demonstrate more frequent surface activity than males, which may serve as a means of increasing their odds of encountering mating partners who travel to a much greater extent. [14]

P. boreus individuals will engage in territorial fights, with the larger scorpion usually winning the fight and then cannibalizing the loser, although this is not always the case and smaller females have been observed consuming larger males. [18] Younger P. boreus tend to be more willing to use their stingers for both defense and offense as opposed to older scorpions. [19]

Reproduction

During the birthing process the females assume a stilting position on their rear walking legs. The young, of which there may be 10 to 40, pass through the birth opening covered in a translucent membrane. The young offspring were observed to free themselves from the membrane in 10 to 20 minutes. After freeing themselves from the birth membrane, the offspring will ascend the mother’s walking legs and assume a grouped-up position on her dorsum. The young offspring will have their first molt after about 12 days and will then, about a week later, begin to roam around the mothers carapace more freely. [12]

Predation

Juvenile P. boreus scorpions do not apprehend prey before reaching 13 days. Within the first 13 days of their existence, they feast on the membrane they exited following birth and the remains of their first exoskeleton. Once they begin to move about to a greater extent at 9 to 11 days, female scorpions eat prey without taking cover and juveniles regroup onto the mother’s cephalothorax. Young scorpions make their first hunt around 13 to 14 days. [17]

P. boreus scorpions have been observed to prey on grasshoppers, pentatomids, spiders and other scorpions. [14] Once an individual has left its burrow, it may come across prey by chance or through active stalking. It uses Rayleigh waves to aid in prey detection and once a prey has been recognized, it charges it. After reaching its prey, the scorpion seizes it with its pedipalps. It is at this stage that it may sting its prey. A prey that has been stung generally ceases to struggle within 1 minute. Regardless of whether it received paralyzing toxins, the immobilized prey is detained in the pedipalps for a duration of 10 to 30 minutes before being brought to the chelicerae. As it departs the location where the prey was caught, the scorpion transfers it onto its own cephalothorax, with the prey’s underside upturned. Unless specimens are accompanied by juveniles, preys are carried to a covered location before being eaten. Feeding duration varies between 2 and 48 hours. [17] The scorpions feed on the head of their prey first and leave the hard exoskeleton as waste. [20] Individuals may go through phases of fasting persisting up to 5 months. The scorpions’ predation approach have been observed to be consistent across individuals independently of age and size. [17]

Stinger utilization

P. boreus stinging behavior varies according to specimen age and the targeted organism. Scorpions aged 13 to 61 days have been observed to sting all prey, likely to maximize their odds of successful feeding and to nurture their evolution to greater size and adulthood. Once they have reached 62 days, individuals begin to leverage their stinging ability only selectively. Stronger pedipalps allow scorpions to successfully capture some varieties of prey without resorting to their stingers. Stinger utilization progressively reduces from 100% in juveniles to 30% once scorpions have reached adulthood. For adult scorpions, stinging is no longer a necessity to prey capture and consumption. After it has become selective, prey stinging occurs in accordance with the degree to which a prey struggles and the type of prey. Hardy prey offering a greater degree of resistance (e. g. grasshoppers) are stung. Captured prey with a softer build (e. g. termites) remain confined to the scorpions’ pedipalps until they stop struggling. In the case of P. boreus individuals engaging each other in combat, stinger utilization is elicited without exception. [17]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Scorpion</span> Predatory order of arachnids

Scorpions are predatory arachnids of the order Scorpiones. They have eight legs and are easily recognized by a pair of grasping pincers and a narrow, segmented tail, often carried in a characteristic forward curve over the back and always ending with a stinger. The evolutionary history of scorpions goes back 435 million years. They mainly live in deserts but have adapted to a wide range of environmental conditions, and can be found on all continents except Antarctica. There are over 2,500 described species, with 22 extant (living) families recognized to date. Their taxonomy is being revised to account for 21st-century genomic studies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Amblypygi</span> Order of arachnids

Amblypygi is an order of arachnids also known as whip spiders or tailless whip scorpions, not to be confused with whip scorpions or vinegaroons that belong to the related order Thelyphonida. The name "amblypygid" means "blunt tail", a reference to a lack of the flagellum that is otherwise seen in whip scorpions. Amblypygids possess no silk glands or venom. They rarely bite if threatened, but can grab fingers with their pedipalps, resulting in thorn-like puncture injuries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Emperor scorpion</span> Species of scorpion

The emperor scorpion, Pandinus imperator, is a species of scorpion native to rainforests and savannas in West Africa. It is one of the largest scorpions in the world and lives for 6–8 years. Its body is black, but like other scorpions it glows pastel green or blue under ultraviolet light. It is a popular species in the pet trade, and is protected by CITES to prevent over-collecting that might affect the species' survival.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ring-necked snake</span> Species of snake

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Southern grasshopper mouse</span> Species of rodent

The southern grasshopper mouse or scorpion mouse is a species of predatory rodent in the family Cricetidae, native to Mexico and the states of Arizona, California, Nevada, New Mexico, and Utah in the United States. Notable for its resistance to venom, it routinely preys on the highly venomous Arizona bark scorpion.

<i>Tetratrichobothrius flavicaudis</i> Species of scorpion

Tetratrichobothrius flavicaudis, or the European yellow-tailed scorpion, is a small black scorpion with yellow-brown legs and tail (metasoma). Adults measure about 35–45 mm (1.4–1.8 in) long. It has relatively large, strong claws (pedipalps) and a short, thin tail. It is native to Southern Europe and Northwest Africa, but an introduced population exists in the United Kingdom.

<i>Hottentotta tamulus</i> Species of scorpion

Hottentotta tamulus, the Indian red scorpion, also known as the eastern Indian scorpion, is a species of scorpion of the family Buthidae. It occurs in most of India, eastern Pakistan and the eastern lowlands of Nepal, and recently from Sri Lanka.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vaejovidae</span> Family of scorpions

Vaejovidae is a family of scorpions, comprising 25 genera and 227 species, found in North America. The species of the genus are found in Mexico and the southern United States, and Paruroctonus boreus is found in Canada and is the northernmost species of scorpion in the world.

<i>Cheloctonus jonesii</i> Species of scorpion

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Paruroctonus utahensis is a species of scorpion, commonly referred to as the eastern sand scorpion. It has a range from Utah to Chihuahua, Mexico. It feeds on many types of arthropods, with one of its most important prey items being Ammobaenetes phrixocnemoides.

References

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  2. ↑ "Four new scorpion species belonging to the genus Paruroctonus (Scorpionida: Vaejovidae)". Occasional Papers of the California Academy of Sciences. 94: 1–16. 1972. doi: 10.5962/bhl.part.22014 . ISSN   0068-5461.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 "Johnson, D.L. 2004. The Northern Scorpion, Paruroctonus boreus" (PDF). 2015. Archived from the original on 2015-11-29.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  4. 1 2 Fet, V.; Sissom, W. D.; Lowe, G.; Braunwalder, M. E. (2000). Catalog of the scorpions of the world (1758–1997). New York: Entomological Society.
  5. 1 2 3 Miller, A.L.; Makowsky, R.A.; Formanowicz, D.R.; Prendini, L.; Cox, C.L. (2014). "Cryptic genetic diversity and complex phylogeography of the boreal North American scorpion, Paruroctonus boreus (Vaejovidae)". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 71: 298–307. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2013.11.005. ISSN   1055-7903. PMID   24269314.
  6. ↑ McClellan, George Brinton; Marcy, Randolph B. (1854). Exploration of the Red river of Louisiana, in the year 1852. Washington: A.O.P. Nicholson. doi:10.5962/bhl.title.47030.
  7. 1 2 3 Gertsch, Willis J.; Soleglad, Michael (1966). "The scorpions of the Vejovis boreus group (subgenus Paruroctonus) in North America (Scorpionida, Vejovidae)" (PDF). American Museum Novitates. American Museum of Natural History (2278): 1–54.
  8. 1 2 Lewis, Charlton T. (1890). An elementary Latin dictionary. New York: American Book Company.
  9. ↑ Thorell, Tord (1876). "I.—On the classification of scorpions". Journal of Natural History. 17 (97): 1–15. doi:10.1080/00222937608681889.
  10. 1 2 3 Miller, Abraham L.; Formanowicz, Daniel R. (2010-12-11). "Friend or foe: behavioral responses to conspecifics in the northern scorpion, Paruroctonus boreus (Scorpionida: Vaejovidae)". Journal of Ethology. 29 (2): 251–256. doi:10.1007/s10164-010-0250-0. ISSN   0289-0771. S2CID   45917720.
  11. ↑ Allred, Dorald M. (1975). "Arachnids as ecological indicators". The Great Basin Naturalist. 35 (4): 405–406.
  12. 1 2 3 Zack, Richard S.; Looney, Chris (1974). "Habitat distribution and seasonality of the northern scorpion, Paruroctonus boreus (Girard) (Scorpiones: Vaejovidae), at the Hanford Site, southcentral Washington State". The Pan-Pacific Entomologist. 88 (3): 292–298. doi:10.3956/2009-24.1. ISSN   0031-0603. S2CID   84565413.
  13. ↑ Allred, Dorald M.; Gertsch, Willis J. (1975). "Spiders and scorpions from northern Arizona and southern Utah". The Journal of Arachnology. American Arachnological Society. 3 (2): 87–99. JSTOR   3705289.
  14. 1 2 3 4 5 Tourtlotte, Gregory Ira (1974). "Studies on the biology and ecology of the northern scorpion, Paruroctonus Boreus (Girard)". The Great Basin Naturalist. Brigham Young University. 34 (3): 167–179.
  15. ↑ Allred, Dorald M. (1973). "Scorpions of the national reactor testing station, Idaho". The Great Basin Naturalist. 33 (4): 251–254.
  16. ↑ Gertsch, Willis J.; Allred, Dorald M. (1965). "Scorpions of the Nevada test site". Brigham Young University Science Bulletin. 6 (4).
  17. 1 2 3 4 5 Cushing, Bruce S.; Matherne, Anne (1980). "Stinger utilization and predation in the scorpion paruroctonus boreus". The Great Basin Naturalist. 40 (2): 193–195.
  18. ↑ Boumediene, Synda; Parcell, Summit; Henderson, Lea; Gallup, Sarah; Tallon, Colleen; Klein, Amanda; Barron, James (2017-12-31). "Behavioral Ecology in the Northern Scorpion". Intermountain Journal of Sciences. 23 (1-4 December): 116–117. ISSN   1081-3519.
  19. ↑ Evans, Edward R. J.; Northfield, Tobin D.; Daly, Norelle L.; Wilson, David T. (2019). "Venom Costs and Optimization in Scorpions". Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution. 7. doi: 10.3389/fevo.2019.00196 . ISSN   2296-701X.
  20. ↑ Barron, James N.; Weidlich, Amy L. (1980). "Reproductive Traits in the Northern Scorpion (Paruroctonus boreus)". Western North American Naturalist. 69 (3): 399–402. doi:10.3398/064.069.0316. ISSN   1527-0904. S2CID   54060428.
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