The morphology of the Polish language is characterised by a fairly regular system of inflection (conjugation and declension) as well as word formation. Certain regular or common alternations apply across the Polish morphological system, affecting word formation and inflection of various parts of speech. These are described below, mostly with reference to the orthographic rather than the phonological system for clarity.
Declensions are generally divided into hard and soft declensions. Soft declensions are used when the stem of the noun ends in a soft (postalveolar or palatal-like) consonant in all forms, while hard declensions are used by nouns with stems ending in a hard consonant in some (but not necessarily all) forms.
Some nouns follow the adjectival declension (see below), particularly if they are masculine nouns ending in -y/i. This applies even to some words with no apparent adjectival connection, such as Jerzy ("George"). Certain neuter nouns, mostly place names such as Zakopane and voivodeship names such as Wielkopolskie when used alone as nouns, follow the adjectival declension but take -em rather than -ym in the instrumental and locative.
The following generalisations can be made for the inflection of all nouns:
Masculine nouns typically end in a consonant and those inflect according to the masculine declension. Masculine nouns ending in -a (usually personal) follow the feminine declension in the singular, and the masculine declension in the plural. The same applies to male personal names in -o (as Kościuszko ; also tato "dad"), although familiar first name forms like Franio follow the masculine declension throughout.
The following table shows the endings shared by all masculine nouns:
singular | plural | ||
---|---|---|---|
nominative | – | * | |
accusative | inanimate | ||
animate | -a | ||
personal | * | ||
genitive | animate | ||
inanimate | -a / -u | ||
locative | * | -ach | |
dative | * | -om | |
instrumental | -em | -ami1 | |
vocative | same as the locative2 | same as the nominative |
1 Some nouns ending in a palatal consonant (for example gość, koń, liść) may take the ending -mi instead of -ami; also pieniądz – pieniędzmi.
2 Except for personal nouns ending in -ec, mainly chłopiec – chłopcze ("boy"), młodzieniec – młodzieńcze ("a young person"), ojciec – ojcze ("father"), starzec – starcze ("an old person").
The rest of the cases are different for 5 different declension groups: [1] [2]
The following table compares all five declension groups:
I | II | III | IV | V | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
dative singular | -owi | -owi / -u | -owi | -owi / -u | -owi | |
locative singular | -u | -e | ||||
nominative plural | personal | -e / -owie | -e / -y / -owie | -cy, -dzy, -si / -owie | -i (-y) / -owie | -anie |
non-personal | -e | -ki, -gi, -chy | -y | N/A | ||
genitive plural | -i / -ów | -y / -ów | -ów | -an / -anów |
Note also:
Irregularities in masculine nouns:
Feminine nouns usually end in -a, although a few end in -i. These are the "a-stem" nouns. A number of feminine nouns ends in a soft or hardened consonant; these are "i-stem" nouns.
The following table shows the feminine a-stem declension:
Hard declension | Soft declension | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
Nominative | mapa | mapy | granica | granice |
Accusative | mapę | granicę | ||
Genitive | mapy | map | granicy | granic |
Locative | mapie | mapach | granicach | |
Dative | mapom | granicom | ||
Instrumental | mapą | mapami | granicą | granicami |
Vocative | mapo | mapy | granico | granice |
The following table shows the feminine i-stem declension:
Singular | Plural | |
---|---|---|
Nominative | noc | noce |
Accusative | ||
Genitive | nocy | nocy |
Locative | nocach | |
Dative | nocom | |
Instrumental | nocą | nocami |
Vocative | nocy | noce |
Neuter nouns end in -o or -e, these are the hard and soft neuter "o-stems". A few end in -ę, the so-called "n-stem" and "t-stem" nouns.
The following table shows the neuter o-stem declension:
Hard declension | Soft declension | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
Nominative | miasto | miasta | pole | pola |
Accusative | miasto | miasta | pole | pola |
Genitive | miasta | miast | pola | pól |
Locative | mieście | miastach | polu | polach |
Dative | miastu | miastom | polu | polom |
Instrumental | miastem | miastami | polem | polami |
Vocative | miasto | miasta | pole | pola |
The neuter n-stem and neuter t-stem nouns decline as soft neuter o-stems in the singular but as hard neuter o-stems in the plural. In addition, they have shortened nominative/accusative/vocative singular forms ending in -ę.
n-stem declension | t-stem declension | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
Nominative | imię | imiona | cielę | cielęta |
Accusative | imię | imiona | cielę | cielęta |
Genitive | imienia | imion | cielęcia | cieląt |
Locative | imieniu | imionach | cielęciu | cielętach |
Dative | imieniu | imionom | cielęciu | cielętom |
Instrumental | imieniem | imionami | cielęciem | cielętami |
Vocative | imię | imiona | cielę | cielęta |
Notable irregular forms include the following:
The following types of nouns are generally invariant, and do not inflect at all:
Foreign personal names of males are declined if at all possible; some special rules are applied depending on the original language. Those that end "-y" or "-i" generally follow the adjectival declension, but these are treated as -i, i.e. the previous consonant is soft, and this is shown in inflected written forms such as Tony'ego.
Adjectives agree with the noun they modify in terms of gender and number. They are declined according to the following pattern (dumny means "proud"):
Singular | Plural | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||
Nominative, Vocative | personal | dumny | dumna | dumne | dumni | dumne | |
non-personal | dumne | ||||||
Accusative | personal | dumnego | dumną | dumne | dumnych | dumne | |
non-personal animate | dumne | ||||||
inanimate | dumny | ||||||
Genitive | dumnego | dumnej | dumnego | dumnych | |||
Locative | dumnym | dumnej | dumnym | dumnych | |||
Dative | dumnemu | dumnej | dumnemu | dumnym | |||
Instrumental | dumnym | dumną | dumnym | dumnymi |
Most short adjectives have a comparative form in -szy or -iejszy, and a superlative obtained by prefixing naj- to the comparative. For example, tani ("cheap") has the forms tańszy ("cheaper") and najtańszy ("cheapest") (these forms are inflected like normal adjectives). The following principles apply:
Adverbs are formed from adjectives with the ending -ie, or in some cases -o. Comparatives of adverbs are formed (where they exist) with the ending -iej. Superlatives have the prefix naj- as for adjectives. Irregular comparatives include lepiej ("better"), gorzej ("worse"), więcej ("more", also bardziej when not concerned with quantity, from bardzo "very"), mniej ("less").
This section gives the declensions of Polish pronouns. For information on meanings and usage, see Pronouns in the article on Polish grammar.
Polite 2nd person forms: pan (plural panowie) and pani (plural panie) are declined like those nouns. The mixed-sex form państwo (which can also be used as a noun to refer to a mixed-sex group or couple) is masculine personal plural, but declines like the neuter noun państwo ("state, country") except that the accusative is państwa (like the genitive) and the locative państwu.
Case | Singular | Plural | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1st | 2nd | 3rd | 1st | 2nd | 3rd | |||||||||
fam. | pol. | masc. | neut. | fem. | fam. | pol. | masc. pers. | non- masc. | ||||||
masc. | fem. | masc. | epic. | fem. | ||||||||||
Nominative (mianownik) | ja | ty | pan | pani | on | ono | ona | my | wy | panowie | państwo | panie | oni | one |
Vocative (wołacz) | panie | |||||||||||||
Accusative (biernik) | mnie | ciebie (cię) | pana | panią | (je/nie)go | je nie | ją | nas | was | panów | państwa | (n)ich | je nie | |
Genitive (dopełniacz) | pani | (je/nie)go | jej niej | pań | (n)ich | |||||||||
Locative (miejscownik) | tobie | panu | nim | niej | panach | państwu | paniach | nich | ||||||
Dative (celownik) | mnie (mi) | tobie (ci) | (je/nie)mu | jej niej | nam | wam | panom | paniom | (n)im | |||||
Instrumental (narzędnik) | mną | tobą | panem | panią | nim | nią | nami | wami | panami | państwem | paniami | nimi |
The declension of się is shown below. The form "siebie" is used when the pronouns is disconnected from the verb.
Nom. | Gen. | Dat. | Acc. | Inst. | Loc. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
– | się/siebie | sobie | się/siebie | sobą | sobie |
Possessive pronouns such as mój, twój, nasz, wasz are declined like adjectives (moja, moje etc.), as are swój and pański. The third-person forms jego, jej and ich are invariant, as are other forms identical to genitives (pana etc.)
masculine | feminine | neuter | virile plural | nonvirile plural | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nominative | mój | moja | moje | moi | moje |
Genitive | mojego | mojej | mojego | moich | moich |
Dative | mojemu | mojej | mojemu | moim | moim |
Accusative | mojego/mój | moją | moje | moich | moje |
Instrumental | moim | moją | moim | moimi | moimi |
Locative | moim | mojej | moim | moich | moich |
masculine | feminine | neuter | virile plural | nonvirile plural | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nominative | twój | twoja | twoje | twoi | twoje |
Genitive | twojego | twojej | twojego | twoich | twoich |
Dative | twojemu | twojej | twojemu | twoim | twoim |
Accusative | twojego/twój | twoją | twoje | twoich | twoje |
Instrumental | twoim | twoją | twoim | twoimi | twoimi |
Locative | twoim | twojej | twoim | twoich | twoich |
masculine | feminine | neuter | virile plural | nonvirile plural | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nominative | nasz | nasza | nasze | nasi | nasze |
Genitive | naszego | naszej | naszego | naszych | naszych |
Dative | naszemu | naszej | naszemu | naszym | naszym |
Accusative | naszego/nasz | naszą | nasze | naszych | nasze |
Instrumental | naszym | naszą | naszym | naszymi | naszymi |
Locative | naszym | naszej | naszym | naszych | naszych |
masculine | feminine | neuter | virile plural | nonvirile plural | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nominative | wasz | wasza | wasze | wasi | wasze |
Genitive | waszego | waszej | waszego | waszych | waszych |
Dative | waszemu | waszej | waszemu | waszym | waszym |
Accusative | waszego/wasz | waszą | wasze | waszych | wasze |
Instrumental | waszym | waszą | waszym | waszymi | waszymi |
Locative | waszym | waszej | waszym | waszych | waszych |
The demonstrative pronouns ten (this) and tamten (that) are declined in a manner similar to adjectives. Their declensions are shown below.
Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Virile Plural | Nonvirile Plural | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nominative | ten | ta | to | ci | te |
Genitive | tego | tej | tego | tych | tych |
Dative | temu | tej | temu | tym | tym |
Accusative | tego/ten* | tę/tą** | to | tych | te |
Instrumental | tym | tą | tym | tymi | tymi |
Locative | tym | tej | tym | tych | tych |
Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Virile Plural | Nonvirile Plural | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nominative | tamten | tamta | tamto | tamci | tamte |
Genitive | tamtego | tamtej | tamtego | tamtych | tamtych |
Dative | tamtemu | tamtej | tamtemu | tamtym | tamtym |
Accusative | tamtego/tamten* | tamtą | tamto | tamtych | tamte |
Instrumental | tamtym | tamtą | tamtym | tamtymi | tamtymi |
Locative | tamtym | tamtej | tamtym | tamtych | tamtych |
* Tego/Tamtego are used for the Masculine Animate declension and Ten/Tamten are used for the Masculine inanimate declension.
** tą is only used in informal speech, tę is the standard written form.
The declensions of "kto" and "co" are shown below.
Derived pronouns such as ktoś/coś, ktokolwiek/cokolwiek, and nikt/nic are declined similarly to kto and co, however nic has the unaltered (accusative) form instead of niczego when it is the object of a negated verb.
Nom. | Gen. | Dat. | Acc. | Inst. | Loc. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
kto | kogo | komu | kogo | kim | kim |
co | czego | czemu | co | czym | czym |
The declension of numerals is given below (accusative and vocative are equal to nominative unless stated). For information on formation and usage, see Numbers and quantifiers in the article on Polish grammar.
Higher numbers (tysiąc, milion etc.) are declined as nouns, and their multiples are treated as number+noun combinations (dwa tysiące "two thousand" behaves like dwa miesiące "two months", and so on).
In compound numbers only the last part of the number is inflected, except when there are both tens and units, in which case both of those are inflected, and when jeden, which is indeclinable in all compound numbers, is the last part of the number, in which case the second to last part is inflected.
Collective numerals:
The lemma of a verb is the infinitive, which usually ends in -ć (occasionally -c). Examples for infinitives in Polish include "być", "czytać", and "brać".
If a verb includes a prefix, then it is generally conjugated like the unprefixed verb, although sometimes the prefix may change its form (e.g. z(e)+brać: infinitive zebrać, but present tense zbiorę etc.)
The present tense (or future tense of perfective verbs) may follow either of the following patterns:
Singular | Plural | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Person | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Virile | Nonvirile | |
infinitive | śpiewać | |||||
present tense | 1st | śpiewam | śpiewamy | |||
2nd | śpiewasz | śpiewacie | ||||
3rd | śpiewa | śpiewają | ||||
impersonal | śpiewa się | |||||
past tense | 1st | śpiewałem | śpiewałam | śpiewaliśmy | śpiewałyśmy | |
2nd | śpiewałeś | śpiewałaś | śpiewaliście | śpiewałyście | ||
3rd | śpiewał | śpiewała | śpiewało | śpiewali | śpiewały | |
impersonal | śpiewano | |||||
future tense | 1st | będę śpiewał, będę śpiewać | będę śpiewała, będę śpiewać | będziemy śpiewali, będziemy śpiewać | będziemy śpiewały, będziemy śpiewać | |
2nd | będziesz śpiewał, będziesz śpiewać | będziesz śpiewała, będziesz śpiewać | będziecie śpiewali, będziecie śpiewać | będziecie śpiewały, będziecie śpiewać | ||
3rd | będzie śpiewał, będzie śpiewać | będzie śpiewała, będzie śpiewać | będzie śpiewało, będzie śpiewać | będą śpiewali, będą śpiewać | będą śpiewały, będą śpiewać | |
impersonal | będzie śpiewać się | |||||
conditional | 1st | śpiewałbym | śpiewałabym | śpiewalibyśmy | śpiewałybyśmy | |
2nd | śpiewałbyś | śpiewałabyś | śpiewalibyście | śpiewałybyście | ||
3rd | śpiewałby | śpiewałaby | śpiewałoby | śpiewaliby | śpiewałyby | |
impersonal | śpiewano by | |||||
imperative | 1st | niech śpiewam | śpiewajmy | |||
2nd | śpiewaj | śpiewajcie | ||||
3rd | niech śpiewa | niech śpiewają | ||||
active adjectival participle | śpiewający | śpiewająca | śpiewające | śpiewający | śpiewające | |
passive adjectival participle | śpiewany | śpiewana | śpiewane | śpiewani | śpiewane | |
contemporary adverbial participle | śpiewając | |||||
verbal noun | śpiewanie |
Singular | Plural | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Person | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Virile | Nonvirile | |
infinitive | brać | |||||
present tense | 1st | biorę | bierzemy | |||
2nd | bierzesz | bierzecie | ||||
3rd | bierze | biorą | ||||
impersonal | bierze się | |||||
past tense | 1st | brałem | brałam | braliśmy | brałyśmy | |
2nd | brałeś | brałaś | braliście | brałyście | ||
3rd | brał | brała | brało | brali | brały | |
impersonal | brano | |||||
future tense | 1st | będę brał, będę brać | będę brała, będę brać | będziemy brali, będziemy brać | będziemy brały, będziemy brać | |
2nd | będziesz brał, będziesz brać | będziesz brała, będziesz brać | będziecie brali, będziecie brać | będziecie brały, będziecie brać | ||
3rd | będzie brał, będzie brać | będzie brała, będzie brać | będzie brało, będzie brać | będą brali, będą brać | będą brały, będą brać | |
impersonal | będzie brać się | |||||
conditional | 1st | brałbym | brałabym | bralibyśmy | brałybyśmy | |
2nd | brałbyś | brałabyś | bralibyście | brałybyście | ||
3rd | brałby | brałaby | brałoby | braliby | brałyby | |
impersonal | brano by | |||||
imperative | 1st | niech biorę | bierzmy | |||
2nd | bierz | bierzcie | ||||
3rd | niech bierze | niech biorą | ||||
active adjectival participle | biorący | biorąca | biorące | biorący | biorące | |
passive adjectival participle | brany | brana | brane | brani | brane | |
contemporary adverbial participle | biorąc | |||||
verbal noun | branie |
The future tense of być ("be") also follows the above pattern: będę, będziesz, będzie, ..., będą However the present tense of być is irregular:
Singular | Plural | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Person | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Virile | Nonvirile | |
Infinitive | być | |||||
present tense | 1st | jestem | jesteśmy | |||
2nd | jesteś | jesteście | ||||
3rd | jest | są | ||||
past tense | 1st | byłem | byłam | byliśmy | byłyśmy | |
2nd | byłeś | byłaś | byliście | byłyście | ||
3rd | był | była | było | byli | były | |
future tense | 1st | będę | będziemy | |||
2nd | będziesz | będziecie | ||||
3rd | będzie | będą | ||||
conditional | 1st | byłbym | byłabym | bylibyśmy | byłybyśmy | |
2nd | byłbyś | byłabyś | bylibyście | byłybyście | ||
3rd | byłby | byłaby | byłoby | byliby | byłyby | |
imperative | 1st | niech będę | bądźmy | |||
2nd | bądź | bądźcie | ||||
3rd | niech będzie | niech będą | ||||
active adjectival participle | będący | będąca | będące | będący | będące | |
contemporary adverbial participle | będąc | |||||
anterior adverbial participle | bywszy | |||||
verbal noun | bycie |
The past tense of most verbs is formed by replacing the -ć of the infinitive with -ł for the masculine singular, -ła for feminine singular, -ło for neuter singular, -ły for feminine plural and -li for other plurals; then adding the endings -(e)m, -(e)ś, -, śmy, ście, - for 1S, 2S, 3S, 1P, 2P, 3P. (The -e- in the singular suffixes appears after a consonant but not after a vowel.) For example, from być:
The personal past tense suffixes, which are reduced forms of the present tense of być, are clitics and can be detached from the verb to attach to another accented word earlier in the sentence.
Some verbs form their past stems differently:
singular | plural | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
person | masculine | feminine | neuter | virile | nonvirile | |
infinitive | zacząć | |||||
future tense | 1st | zacznę | zaczniemy | |||
2nd | zaczniesz | zaczniecie | ||||
3rd | zacznie | zaczną | ||||
impersonal | zacznie się | |||||
past tense | 1st | zacząłem | zaczęłam | zaczęliśmy | zaczęłyśmy | |
2nd | zacząłeś | zaczęłaś | zaczęliście | zaczęłyście | ||
3rd | zaczął | zaczęła | zaczęło | zaczęli | zaczęły | |
impersonal | zaczęto | |||||
conditional | 1st | zacząłbym | zaczęłabym | zaczęlibyśmy | zaczęłybyśmy | |
2nd | zacząłbyś | zaczęłabyś | zaczęlibyście | zaczęłybyście | ||
3rd | zacząłby | zaczęłaby | zaczęłoby | zaczęliby | zaczęłyby | |
impersonal | zaczęto by | |||||
imperative | 1st | niech zacznę | zacznijmy | |||
2nd | zacznij | zacznijcie | ||||
3rd | niech zacznie | niech zaczną | ||||
passive adjectival participle | zaczęty | zaczęta | zaczęte | zaczęci | zaczęte | |
anterior adverbial participle | zacząwszy | |||||
verbal noun | zaczęcie |
singular | plural | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
person | masculine | feminine | neuter | virile | nonvirile | |
infinitive | móc | |||||
present tense | 1st | mogę | możemy | |||
2nd | możesz | możecie | ||||
3rd | może | mogą | ||||
impersonal | może się | |||||
past tense | 1st | mogłem | mogłam | mogliśmy | mogłyśmy | |
2nd | mogłeś | mogłaś | mogliście | mogłyście | ||
3rd | mógł | mogła | mogło | mogli | mogły | |
future tense | 1st | będę mógł, będę móc | będę mogła, będę móc | będziemy mogli, będziemy móc | będziemy mogły, będziemy móc | |
2nd | będziesz mógł, będziesz móc | będziesz mogła, będziesz móc | będziecie mogli, będziecie móc | będziecie mogły, będziecie móc | ||
3rd | będzie mógł, będzie móc | będzie mogła, będzie móc | będzie mogło, będzie móc | będą mogli, będą móc | będą mogły, będą móc | |
impersonal | będzie móc się | |||||
conditional | 1st | mógłbym | mogłabym | moglibyśmy | mogłybyśmy | |
2nd | mógłbyś | mogłabyś | moglibyście | mogłybyście | ||
3rd | mógłby | mogłaby | mogłoby | mogliby | mogłyby | |
imperative | 1st | — | — | |||
2nd | — | — | ||||
3rd | — | — | ||||
active adjectival participle | mogący | mogąca | mogące | mogący | mogące | |
contemporary adverbial participle | mogąc |
singular | plural | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
person | masculine | feminine | neuter | virile | nonvirile | |
infinitive | zniknąć | |||||
future tense | 1st | zniknę | znikniemy | |||
2nd | znikniesz | znikniecie | ||||
3rd | zniknie | znikną | ||||
impersonal | zniknie się | |||||
past tense | 1st | zniknąłem | zniknęłam | zniknęliśmy | zniknęłyśmy | |
2nd | zniknąłeś | zniknęłaś | zniknęliście | zniknęłyście | ||
3rd | zniknął | zniknęła | zniknęło | zniknęli | zniknęły | |
impersonal | zniknięto | |||||
conditional | 1st | zniknąłbym | zniknęłabym | zniknęlibyśmy | zniknęłybyśmy | |
2nd | zniknąłbyś | zniknęłabyś | zniknęlibyście | zniknęłybyście | ||
3rd | zniknąłby | zniknęłaby | zniknęłoby | zniknęliby | zniknęłyby | |
impersonal | zniknięto by | |||||
imperative | 1st | niech zniknę | zniknijmy | |||
2nd | zniknij | zniknijcie | ||||
3rd | niech zniknie | niech znikną | ||||
anterior adverbial participle | zniknąwszy | |||||
verbal noun | zniknięcie |
The conditional (or subjunctive) is formed from the past tense plus by, the personal endings (if any) coming after the by. For example: byłbym/byłabym, byłbyś/byłabyś, byłby/byłaby/byłoby; bylibyśmy/byłybyśmy, bylibyście/byłybyście, byliby/byłyby. The endings (-by, -bym etc.) are detachable clitics, like the past tense personal endings as mentioned above.
The future tense of imperfective verbs (other than być) is formed using the future of być (będę etc.) together with the infinitive, or the past form (inflected for gender and number, but without any personal suffixes), of the verb in question. For example, the future of robić ("do, make") has such forms as będę robić/robił/robiła, będzicie robić/robili/robiły. The choice between infinitive and past form is usually a free one, but with modals governing another infinitive, the past form is used: będzie musiał odejść (not będzie musieć...) "he will have to leave".
The second personal singular imperative is formed from the present tense by dropping the ending (e.g. brać: 2/3S present bierze(sz), imperative bierz), adding -ij for pronounceability (e.g. zacząć, pres. zacznie(sz), imperative zacznij); or (if the present tense is in -a-) by adding -aj (e.g. śpiewać, pres. śpiewa(sz), imperative śpiewaj). Irregular examples include być: bądź, mieć: miej. Add -my and -cie for the 1P and 2P forms. To make third-person imperative sentences (including with the polite second-person pronouns pan etc.) the particle niech is used.
Other forms of the verb are:
The modal verb powinien ("should") is conjugated in the present tense with adjective-type and personal endings, similar to the past tense of regular verbs(powinna/-o/-i/-y; powinienem/powinnam "I should" etc.) It has only one tense, although on rare occasions, past tense forms of "być" (byłem, byłeś, był, etc.) are added to show past meaning.
Before some consonant clusters, particularly clusters beginning with a sibilant (in the case of z) or with f/w (in the case of w), the prepositions z and w take the form ze and we, respectively; (e.g. we Wrocławiu "in Wrocław"). These forms are also used before the first-person singular pronouns in mn-; several other prepositions also have longer forms before these pronouns (przeze mnie, pode mną etc.), and these phrases are pronounced as single words, with the stress on the penultimate syllable (the -e).
When z is used as a prefix, it is spelt "s" if it is part of a voiceless consonant cluster. As preposition it is spelt z, even if it is pronounced /s/. The epenthesis of -e- also applies to the prefixes w-, z-/s-, and to all -w or -z/-s (roz- + znać = rozeznać).
Polish makes wide use of prefixes and suffixes in word formation. Some examples of this are:
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