Political particularism

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In political science, political particularism is the ability of policymakers to further their careers by catering to narrow interests rather than to broader national platforms. [1]

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Political science

In a political system governed by particularism, sooner or later, the decisive factor of politics becomes ethnic and religious identity and the interests of the communities defined by these bonds. This stands in contrast with the ideas and values of political pluralism, with its emphasis on universal rights, separation of religion and the government, and an ethic of ethnic and religious tolerance.[ citation needed ]

Parliamentary practice

When an elected assembly, which is supposed to express collective interests, directs funds to a specific recipient (with local and personal Acts in United Kingdom, or earmarks in United States, for example), the parliamentary system is bent to political particularism. The way to legislate it is often characterized by its opponents as the politics of group identity that trumps universal rights and therefore the rights of minorities or any other kind of "other".

It is in direct opposition to the concept of universality of the law and to the trustee model of representation. The practice in the following countries is often called pork barrel or earmark or patronage, but those words do not always imply corrupt or undesirable conduct.

Australia

"Pork barrel" is frequently used in reference to Australian politics, [2] [3] [4] in circumstances where marginal seats might be seen as receiving more funding than safe seats or when funding for projects is heavily directed toward the party-held seats, with the opposition receiving little to no such funding. The term's widespread appearance in news media has led to it being commonly used in Australian English as a verb, such as in "pork barrelling". [5] The sports rorts affair (2020) perpetrated by Senator Bridget McKenzie is a classic example of pork barrelling in Australian politics.

Central and Eastern Europe

Romanians speak of pomeni electorale (literally, "electoral alms"), while the Polish kiełbasa wyborcza means literally "election sausage". In Serbian, podela kolača ("cutting the cake") refers to post-electoral distribution of state-funded positions for the loyal members of the winning party. The Czech předvolební guláš ("pre-election goulash") has a similar meaning, referring to free dishes of goulash served to potential voters during election campaign meetings targeted at lower social classes; metaphorically, it stands for any populistic political decisions that are taken before the elections with the aim of obtaining more votes. The process of diverting budget funds in favor of a project in a particular constituency is called porcování medvěda ("portioning of the bear") in Czech usage. [6]

German-speaking countries

The German language differentiates between campaign goodies (Wahlgeschenke, literally "election gifts") to occur around election dates, and parish-pump politics (Kirchturmpolitik, literally "steeple politics") for concentrating funding and reliefs to the home constituency of a politician. While the former is a technical term (almost neutral or only slightly derogatory) the latter is always derogatory and its beneficial scope is not wider than the area within which the politician's village church steeple can be seen. In Switzerland the wording of provincial thinking (Kantönligeist, literally "cantonal mind") may cover these actions as well and it is understood as a synonym in Germany and Austria.

India

In India, the term "pork barrel politics" has been employed to depict the pattern of distribution of discretionary grants by the national government (see for example Biswas et al. 2010; [7] Rodden and Wilkinson 2004). [8]

Ireland

The term parish pump politics is more commonly used in Ireland although Independent TD Shane Ross referred to pork barrel politics at a press conference for the Independent Alliance in the run up to the 2016 general election, saying that the Alliance was "not interested in pork barrel politics". [9] Despite being appointed Minister for Transport, Tourism and Sport in the 32nd Dáil in 2016, he prioritised the reopening of a police station in his own constituency, which was eventually delivered on the eve of the election of new Taoiseach Leo Varadkar in June 2017. [10]

Italy

Apart from the law not respecting the duty of generality (legge provvedimento), political particularism in Italy is expressed properly in so-called legge mancia. [11]

Enacted in 2004 with the purpose of financing small public works of local authorities, it creates a public fund whose use is subject to previous advice from Appropriation Committees of the Chamber and Senate. Soon this system revealed a very different nature: the money from the "tip law" went to finance practically everything (from sports clubs to cultural associations to parishes). In 2008, after the failed suppression, the law resurfaced when parliamentarians of the Budget Commission of the Chamber presented a resolution that "commits the government" to distribute 103 million euros to 588 initiatives by decree; [12] the advice was given by two parliamentary Committees up to 2010, in order to distribute public money from the fund for "urgent interventions aimed at socio-economic rebalancing and the development of the territory and the promotion of sporting, cultural and social activities". [13]

Afterwards, the fund was closed, even if periodically anti-parliamentarian polemics cry about its restoration under other guise. [14] In May 2016, Minister Pier Carlo Padoan, presenting a budgetary reform bill, "emphasized the brake on the bad habit of inserting micro-sector or local regulations. The stop, explained the minister, is aimed at 'avoiding' that parliamentary work 'concentrates exclusively on particularistic norms', which respond to needs linked to individual situations and individuals." [15]

Nordic countries

Similar expressions, meaning "election meat", are used in Danish (valgflæsk), Swedish (valfläsk) and Norwegian (valgflesk), where they mean promises made before an election, often by a politician who has little intention of fulfilling them. [16]

The Finnish political jargon uses siltarumpupolitiikka ("culvert politics") in reference to national politicians concentrating on small local matters, such as construction of roads and other public works at politician's home municipality.

In Iceland, the term kjördæmapot refers to the practice of funneling public funds to key voting demographics in marginal constituencies.

Philippines

Protest against pork barrel politics at the 2013 Million People March in Luneta Million People March in Luneta against Pork Barrel 24.JPG
Protest against pork barrel politics at the 2013 Million People March in Luneta

In the Philippines, the term "pork barrel" is used to mean funds allocated to the members of the Philippine House of Representatives and the Philippine Senate to spend as they see fit without going through the normal budgetary process or through the executive branch. It can be used for both "hard" projects, such as buildings and roads, and "soft" projects, such as scholarships and medical expenses. The first pork barrel fund was introduced in 1922 with the passage of the first Public Works Act (Act No 3044). This pork barrel system was technically stopped by President Ferdinand Marcos during his dictatorship by abolishing Congress. It was reintroduced to the system after the restoration of the Congress in 1987. The program has had different names over the years, including the Countryside Development Fund, Congressional Initiative Fund, and currently the Priority Development Assistance Fund.[ citation needed ] Since 2006, the PDAF was ₱70.0 M for each Representative and ₱200.0 M for each Senator.

During the presidency of Gloria Macapagal Arroyo, PDAF became the biggest source of corruption among the legislators. [17] Kickbacks were common and became syndicated—using pre-identified project implementers including government agencies, contractors and bogus non-profit corporations as well as the government's Commission on Audit. [18]

In August 2013, outrage over the ₱10 billion Priority Development Assistance Fund scam, involving Janet Lim-Napoles and numerous senators and representatives, led to widespread calls for abolition of the PDAF system. [19] The so-called Million People March which occurred on August 26, 2013, National Heroes' Day in the Philippines, called for the end of "pork barrel" and was joined by simultaneous protests nationwide and by the Filipino diaspora around the world. [20]

Petitioners have challenged the constitutionality of the PDAF before the high court following reports of its widespread and systematic misuse by some members of Congress in cahoots with private individuals. Three incumbent senators and several former members of the House of Representatives have been named respondents in a plunder complaint filed with the Office of the Ombudsman in connection with the alleged ₱10 billion pork barrel scam. Public outrage over the anomaly has resulted in the largest protest gathering under the three-year-old Aquino administration. [21]

On November 19, 2013, the Supreme Court declared the controversial Priority Development Assistance Fund (PDAF), or more commonly known as the pork barrel, as unconstitutional. In a briefing, the high court declared the PDAF Article in 2013 General Approriations Act and all similar provisions on the pork barrel system as illegal because it "allowed legislators to wield, in varying gradiations, non-oversight, post-enactment authority in vital areas of budget executions (thus violating) the principle of separation of powers". [21]

Spain

The Madrid–Seville high-speed rail line was a noted example of pork barrel politics in Spain. [22] Pasqual Maragall revealed details of an unwritten agreement between him and Felipe González, the prime minister at the time who was from Seville. The agreement was that Barcelona would receive the 1992 Summer Olympics and Seville would receive the high-speed railway line (which opened in 1992). [23] This was in spite of the position of the Madrid–Barcelona high-speed rail line as Spain's most profitable high-speed line. [24]

South Africa

In 2010, the National Treasury of the Republic of South Africa explored earmarking, [25] along with recycling and tax shifting, as ways of using carbon tax revenues. While the Treasury did "not support full earmarking of revenues generated from environmental taxes" they were considering "partial 'on-budget' earmarking"[ verification needed ] of some revenue. At that time concerns were raised that special interest groups could constrain government and control public resources through earmarking. [25] : 8 

United Kingdom

The term "pork barrel" is rarely used in British English, although similar terms exist: election sweetener, tax sweetener, or just sweetener, which refers to the practice of a Chancellor of the Exchequer leaving room in their fiscal programme to announce a big tax cut or spending boost in the budget immediately prior to an election, usually targeting a key voting demographic (such as the elderly) or benefitting marginal constituencies. [26]

The term "pork barrel" was, however, used in August 2013 by the Campaign for Better Transport in their criticism of Danny Alexander MP's involvement in securing funding for the A6 Manchester Airport Relief Road which passed through a marginal Liberal Democrat constituency. [27] It was also used by Pete Wishart in the House of Commons on 26 June 2017 in reference to the deal between the Conservative Party and the Democratic Unionist Party to keep the former in power.[ citation needed ] In February 2019 it was used by shadow chancellor John McDonnell to criticise Theresa May's rumoured attempts to persuade Labour MPs to vote for her Brexit deal. [28] In March 2021 opposition Labour leader Sir Keir Starmer accused ministers of "pork barrel politics" over how they had categorised local authorities under the new £4.8bn Levelling Up Fund, which the Financial Times reported favoured some prosperous Tory voting areas. [29] The Good Law Project has warned the Government of legal proceedings over the matter. [30] In the runup to the Hartlepool by-election of 2021, Tees Valley mayor Ben Houchen was accused of pork barrel politics in the Financial Times. [31]

United States

In the United States, the term earmark is used in relation with the congressional allocation process. [32] : 36  [33] [34]

Discretionary spending, which is set by the House and Senate Appropriations Committees and their various subcommittees, usually through appropriation acts, is an optional part of fiscal policy which differs from mandatory spending for entitlement programs in the federal budget. [35]

Pork-barrel projects, which differ from earmarks, are added to the federal budget mainly by members of the appropriation committees of United States Congress.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pork barrel</span> Political tactic

Pork barrel, or simply pork, is a metaphor for the appropriation of government spending for localized projects secured solely or primarily to direct expenditures to a representative's district. The usage originated in American English, and it indicates a negotiated way of political particularism.

An appropriation bill, also known as supply bill or spending bill, is a proposed law that authorizes the expenditure of government funds. It is a bill that sets money aside for specific spending. In some democracies, approval of the legislature is necessary for the government to spend money.

The United States budget process is the framework used by Congress and the President of the United States to formulate and create the United States federal budget. The process was established by the Budget and Accounting Act of 1921, the Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974, and additional budget legislation.

An omnibus spending bill is a type of bill in the United States that packages many of the smaller ordinary appropriations bills into one larger single bill that can be passed with only one vote in each house of Congress. There are twelve different ordinary appropriations bills that need to be passed each year to fund the federal government and avoid a government shutdown. An omnibus spending bill combines two or more of those bills into a single bill.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">United States House Committee on Appropriations</span> Standing committee of the United States House of Representatives

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In many states with political systems derived from the Westminster system, a consolidated fund or consolidated revenue fund is the main bank account of the government. General taxation is taxation paid into the consolidated fund, and general spending is paid out of the consolidated fund.

The power of the purse is the ability of one group to control the actions of another group by withholding funding, or putting stipulations on the use of funds. The power of the purse can be used positively or negatively. The power of the purse is most often utilized by forces within a government that do not have direct executive power, but have control over budgets and taxation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fund accounting</span> An accounting system used for special reporting requirements

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An entitlement is a government program guaranteeing access to some benefit by members of a specific group and based on established rights or by legislation. The term may also reflect a pejorative connotation, as in a "sense of entitlement". A "right" is itself an entitlement associated with a moral or social principle, while an "entitlement" is a provision made in accordance with a legal framework of a society. Typically, entitlements are based on concepts of principle ("rights") which are themselves based in concepts of social equality or enfranchisement.

People's Initiative is a common appellative in the Philippines that refers to either a mode for constitutional amendment provided by the 1987 Philippine Constitution or to the act of pushing an initiative allowed by the Philippine Initiative and Referendum Act of 1987. The appellative also refers to the product of either of those initiatives.

An earmark is a provision inserted into a discretionary spending appropriations bill that directs funds to a specific recipient while circumventing the merit-based or competitive funds allocation process. Earmarks feature in United States Congress spending policy, and they are present in public finance of many other countries as a form of political particularism.

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The Priority Development Assistance Fund scam, also called the PDAF scam or the pork barrel scam, is a political scandal involving the alleged misuse by several members of the Congress of the Philippines of their Priority Development Assistance Fund, a lump-sum discretionary fund granted to each member of Congress for spending on priority development projects of the Philippine government, mostly on the national level.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Janet Lim-Napoles</span> Filipina businesswoman and convicted criminal

Janet Lim-Napoles is a Filipina businesswoman who is believed to have masterminded the Priority Development Assistance Fund (PDAF) Scam. She was convicted of plunder for her involvement in the PDAF Scam and is facing charges for alleged involvement in the misuse of the Malampaya fund for disaster response operations.

The Priority Development Assistance Fund (PDAF) was a discretionary fund in the Philippines available to members of Congress. Originally established as the Countrywide Development Fund (CDF) in 1990, it was designed to allow legislators to fund small-scale infrastructure or community projects which fell outside the scope of the national infrastructure program, which was often restricted to large infrastructure items.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Million People March</span> 2013 protest in the Philippines against Pork Barrel funds

The Million People March at Luneta was the first of a series of protests in the Philippines calling for the total abolition of the Pork Barrel fund, triggered by public anger over the Priority Development Assistance Fund scam. Initial calls circulated through social media to convene a protest on August 26, 2013, at Luneta Park in Manila as well as other cities nationwide and overseas. Some media commentators consider this as the first ever massive rally in the Philippines called and organised mostly through social media channels.

The Disbursement Acceleration Program in the Philippines is a "special" budget allocated to accelerate or hasten a government project without Congress or Senate's approval. This replaces the traditional pork barrel, the Priority Development Assistance Fund (PDAF), after the Pork barrel scam was uncovered in 2013.

References

  1. ↑ Alejandro Gaviria; Ugo Panizza; Ernesto Stein; Jessica Seddon (March 2000). "Political Institutions and Growth Collapses" (PDF). doi:10.2139/ssrn.220452. S2CID   16673221. SSRN   220452.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  2. ↑ Taylor, Lenore (3 June 2008). "The Australian: PM rolls out his own pork barrel". The Australian . News Corp Australia. Archived from the original on 5 June 2008. Retrieved 31 August 2013.
  3. ↑ Pearlman, Jonathan; Coorey, Phillip (16 November 2007). "Vaile in last-ditch pork barrel". The Sydney Morning Herald . Retrieved 31 August 2013.
  4. ↑ Link, Madeline (2020-05-25). "'Call me Pork-Barilaro': deputy premier defends regional arts grants". The Northern Daily Leader. Retrieved 2021-07-09.
  5. ↑ Van Onselen, Peter (1 July 2021). "Leaders won't admit they have a pork barrelling problem". The Australian . News Corp Australia . Retrieved 3 July 2021.
  6. ↑ "Porcování medvěda zvítězilo nad ideály". Euro.cz. Archived from the original on 28 December 2021. Retrieved 14 August 2010.
  7. ↑ Biswas, Rongili; Marjit, Sugata; Marimoutou, Velayoudom (2010). "Fiscal Federalism, State Lobbying and Discretionary Finance: Evidence from India". Economics & Politics. 22: 68–91. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0343.2009.00363.x. S2CID   59387644.
  8. ↑ Rodden and S. Wilkinson, 2005. The Shifting Political Economy of Redistribution in the Indian Federation
  9. ↑ Kelly, Fiach (February 25, 2016). "Independents not interested in 'pork barrel' politics, says Shane Ross". The Irish Times.
  10. ↑ "Stepaside Garda station to re-open, fulfilling key Shane Ross demand". Irish Times.
  11. ↑ Legge mancia, Treccani on line, ad vocem (transl.: law-tip). For its use in official act, see Chamber of deputies, XVI Legislatura, Resoconto stenografico dell'Assemblea, Seduta n. 379 di mercoledì 6 ottobre 2010, p. 49.
  12. ↑ "Dalle fogne ai prodotti tipici Riesumata la "legge mancia"".
  13. ↑ "La casta si regala 150 milioni con la Legge mancia". 21 November 2012.
  14. ↑ "LA LEGGE MANCIA E' MORTA MA I SUOI FONDI SONO VIVI – Professione Parlamento". 9 February 2017.
  15. ↑ "Padoan: riforma del bilancio per fermare «leggi mancia»", Il Sole 24 ore, 26 May 2016.
  16. ↑ "Valfläsk". Nationalencyklopedin , NE Nationalencyklopedin AB.
  17. ↑ Cabacungan, Gil (22 August 2013). "Arroyo chose who, how much PDAF to give". The Inquirer. Retrieved 8 September 2013.
  18. ↑ Cabacungan, Gil C. (22 August 2013). "Arroyo chose who, how much PDAF to give". The Inquirer. Retrieved 2016-04-11.
  19. ↑ "PDAF wins elections, favors political parties". Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism. Retrieved 2016-04-11.
  20. ↑ Francisco, Rosemarie (26 August 2013). "Tens of thousands of Filipinos protest "pork barrel" funds". Reuters.com. Retrieved 28 August 2013.
  21. 1 2 Merueñas, Mark (19 November 2013). "Supreme Court declares PDAF unconstitutional". GMA News .
  22. ↑ Ross, John F.L. (June 1994). "High‐speed Rail: Catalyst for European Integration?". JCMS: Journal of Common Market Studies. 32 (2): 203. doi:10.1111/j.1468-5965.1994.tb00493.x. ISSN   0021-9886.
  23. ↑ Iglesias, Natalia (18 November 2007). "Maragall revela que acordó con González que el AVE llegara primero a Sevilla". El País .
  24. ↑ "Solo 11 de 179 rutas de tren en España cubren gastos operativos". La Preferente.
  25. 1 2 "Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions: The Carbon Tax Option" (PDF), National Treasury Republic of South Africa, p. 75, December 2010, retrieved January 4, 2017
  26. ↑ Thornton, Philip (24 February 2005). "Brown warned on pre-election tax 'sweeteners'". The Independent . Retrieved 31 August 2013.
  27. ↑ "Treasury minister's role in road funding 'in danger of looking like pork barrel politics' (blog)". bettertransport.org.uk. Campaign for Better Transport. 12 August 2013. Retrieved 31 August 2013.
  28. ↑ McDonnell, John (2 February 2019). "McDonnell accuses PM of 'pork-barrel' politics with Brexit 'bribery'" . Retrieved 2 February 2019.
  29. ↑ Bounds, Andy; Smith, Alan (5 March 2021). "Levelling up Fund bias in favour of Tory seats 'pretty blatant'" . Retrieved 6 March 2021.
  30. ↑ "Pork Barrel Politics".
  31. ↑ Payne, Sebastian (3 May 2021). "Tories' red wall shows no signs of crumbling on Teesside". Financial Times.
  32. ↑ Karen L. Haas, ed. (January 6, 2015), "Rules of the House of Representatives" (PDF), Clerk of the House of Representatives, pp. 45 or 75, retrieved January 4, 2017
  33. ↑ "Guidance to Agencies on Definition of Earmarks", Office of Management and Budget Executive Office of the President of the United States, November 12, 2010, archived from the original on April 1, 2010, retrieved January 4, 2017
  34. ↑ "Budget Concepts". FY 2013 Budget of the United States Government (PDF). Vol. Analytical Perspectives. p. 137 – via National Archives.{{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  35. ↑ Mandal, U.C. (2007). Dictionary of Public Administration. Sarup & Sons. p.  140. ISBN   978-81-7625-784-8.

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