Puna ibis

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Puna ibis
Plegadis ridgwayi -Huacarpay Lakes, near Cusco, Peru-8.jpg
near Cusco, Peru
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Pelecaniformes
Family: Threskiornithidae
Genus: Plegadis
Species:
P. ridgwayi
Binomial name
Plegadis ridgwayi
(Allen, 1876)
Plegadis ridgwayi map.svg
Synonyms
  • Falcinelus ridgwayiAllen, 1876

The puna ibis (Plegadis ridgwayi) is a species of waterbird in the family Threskiornithidae, spoonbills and ibises. [2] It can be found in Ecuador, Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, and Peru. [3] It can be found in the altiplano and puna regions of the Andean highlands, inhabiting wetlands such as swamps, marshes and lakes, at an elevation of 3,000 to 4,500 meters. [3] They migrate down to sea level to forage in coastal wetlands as well. [3]

Contents

Description

The puna ibis is a medium-sized waterbird, weighing 478–608g and about 56–61 cm tall. [4] They can be identified by their dark purple-brown bodies, long neck, and red downward-curved bill. [5] Their plumage has iridescence to it, offering a purple or green sheen. While there is little sexual dimorphism between male and females, a breeding adult can be recognized by its dark chestnut head and neck, with a red face and, and nonbreeding or immature individuals have white streaks on their head and neck, with a duller face. Males are also larger than females. [5]

This species lives in wetlands such as marshes, lagoons, and shallow lakes across the high Andes. [3] This species mainly feeds on invertebrates, but may also snack on amphibians and small fish when possible. It captures its prey by probing through the water or mud with its long beak. [6]

They breeds in mixed colonies with other water birds. [7] Nests are built within tall vegetation, hidden from predators. [7] The species is listed as least concern on the IUCN Red List. However, exact population numbers are unknown, and they may be facing threats such as habitat degradation. [8]

Taxonomy

Puna ibis are in the genus plegadis , part of the family Threskiornithidae. Threskiornithidae includes 13 genera and 32 species of spoonbills and ibises. [2] In Peru, there are nine species within Threskiornithidae, the most represented being the puna ibis. [3] According to the South American Classification Committee (SACC), the genus plegadis contains three species- plegadis ridgwayi, plegadis chihi, plegadis falcinellus . [3] The genus belongs to a monophyletic clade, that also includes platalea and threskiornis. The sister species of plegadis ridgwayi is plegadis chihi, while plegadis falcinellus is a sister to the clade. There is evidence to suggest the possible hybridization between P. ridgwayi and P. chihi, although it is unknown whether it is historical or due to recent contact. Additionally there is strong evidence of hybridization between P. falcinellus and P. chihi [3] .

Habitat and Distribution

Puna ibis are found in Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Northern Chile, and Northeastern Argentina. The core population resides in Peru and Bolivia. [3] Puna ibis is a characteristic species of the high Andean region. They occur from sea level to 5,000 meters in elevation, however the greatest concentration in the high Andes are between 3,000 and 4,500 meters as well as a significant amount between 0 and 500m along the coast. [3] They occupy both altitudinal and coastal wetlands such as swamps, marshes, lagoons, river banks, and flooded grasslands. [3] They've also been sighted in artificial habitats like irrigation canals, flooded agricultural lands, and plants of abandoned waste water treatment facilities. [9]

Recently, there has been a range expansion of the puna ibis, with populations moving northward, and towards the coast. This range expansion could be attributed to the habitat degradation in the high Andes. [3]

The data on population size of the puna ibis is poor. The population in the Lake Junín area of Peru was previously estimated at 8,000 by Hancock et al., meaning the total population would be around 10,000. This estimate is thought to be lower with population decline. Another estimate placed the population at 10,000-15,000. [8] These estimates are highly uncertain. ICUN Redlist has the population size listed at 5,000-20,000. [8]

Behaviour

The puna ibis is a highly social bird. They form flocks of hundreds of individuals and exhibit cooperation behaviour such as shared nesting sites and protecting each other young. [10] They are dinural, spending most of their time foraging in shallow waters, using their bill to probe around for food. [10] When feeding they often sport a curved back, with some feathers raised, and flutter around in small groups a few meters above the ground. [3] Ibis within the plegadis genus are also known to participate in sunbathing or sunning. A comfort behaviour in which the bird deliberately positions itself in the sun and adopts a unique posture. [11] This behaviour is often preceded or followed by preening. [11]

Vocalizations

Usually quite quiet, when disturbed puna ibis vocalize with a call that sounds like a “wut” or “cwurk”. [7] Juveniles are known to give a whispering call. [7] The glossy ibis, plegadis falcinellus, vocalize when greeting their mates during nest relief, as well as when chicks are food-begging. [12] Since both birds are in the same genus, it can be assumed that the puna ibis also vocalizes for those reasons as well.

Diet

Puna ibis use their long bill to probe into the water of mud [6] often on the edges of denser vegetation to feed. [7] Their diet includes invertebrates, however they may also consume amphibians and small fish if the opportunity presents itself. [10]

Reproduction

As social birds, puna ibis are colonial nesters, meaning they nest in large groups in the same area. [10] They build their nests in tall vegetation within the wetlands, and lay two eggs per clutch. [10] The breeding season aligns with the wet season, providing maximum resource availability for the colony. Both parents incubate the eggs, which take about 21-28 days to hatch. [10] The chicks are quite independent after hatching, however remain under their parents protection and learning to forage until they can go off on their own. [10] They may nest in mixed colonies with other waterbirds. [7] Very little is known about the species courtship behaviour. [7]

Migration

This species does migrate, but rather than long-distance migration, they migrate altitudinally. [3] Spending most of the year in the wetlands of the high Andes, they migrate down to coastal wetlands on the onset of the winter months, May to September. [7] Recently, the severity of droughts in the high Andes has forced more birds to move to coastal areas, with coastal populations showing a gradual stabilization, and those in the high Andes declining over the past three decades. [3]

Threats

The main threat the puna ibis faces is habitat degradation. Irrigation and cultivation creates artificial feeding grounds, however it destroys suitable nesting areas [9] Overgrazing, peat extraction, mining, and the construction of roads and reservoirs also degrades their habitat [9]

Climate change may also pose a threat to the puna ibis as it increases the frequency of droughts, and modifies the hydrological conditions of the high Andes. [13] This is evidence for the increased coastal population and decline in high Andes population, as well as the range expansion.

Additionally, the eggs from this species have been known to be overharvested by locals. [14] The severity of this is unknown but it would definitely effect population size when combined with the other threats.

EBird Puna Ibis About the Puna Region Map of the Indigenous groups of the Andes About the Aymara of the Altiplano About the Altiplano Map of the Puna and Altiplano Regions of the Andes

References

  1. ↑ BirdLife International (2016). "Plegadis ridgwayi". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2016 e.T22697429A93613504. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22697429A93613504.en . Retrieved 15 November 2021.
  2. 1 2
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
  4. ↑
  5. 1 2
  6. 1 2
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
  8. 1 2 3
  9. 1 2 3
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
  11. 1 2
  12. ↑
  13. ↑
  14. ↑

[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13]


  1. ↑ Arana, C., Pulido, V., Arana, A., Carlos, A., & Salinas, L. (2025). Distribución geográfica y abundancia poblacional de Plegadis ridgwayi, el ibis de la Puna (Threskiornithidae) con énfasis en las poblaciones del Perú. Revista Peruana de Biología, 29(3), 1–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.15381/rpb.v29i3.22533
  2. ↑ Benavides, J. C., Vitt, D. H., & Wieder, R. K. (2013). The influence of climate change on recent peat accumulation patterns ofDistichia muscoidescushion bogs in the high-elevation tropical Andes of Colombia. Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences, 118, 1627–1635. https://doi.org/10.1002/2013jg002419
  3. ↑ BirdLife International (BirdLife International. (2025, February 25). IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Plegadis ridgwayi. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species; Name. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/22697429/154879094
  4. ↑ BirdLife International (2025). Species factsheet: Puna Ibis Plegadis ridgwayi. Downloaded from https://datazone.birdlife.org/species/factsheet/puna-ibis-plegadis-ridgwayi 07/11/2025)
  5. ↑ Coke, R. L., West, G. D., & Hoover, J. P. (2004). Hematology and Plasma Biochemistry of Captive Puna Ibis (Plegadis ridgewayi). Journal of Wildlife Diseases, 40(1), 141–144. https://doi.org/10.7589/0090-3558-40.1.141
  6. ↑ Córdova-González, J., Platt, M., & Ordóñez-Delgado, L. (2020). Plegadis ridgwayi (J.A. Allen, 1876) (Aves, Threskiornithidae): range extension and a new country record for Ecuador. Check List, 16(5), 1343–1346. https://doi.org/10.15560/16.5.1343
  7. ↑ Davis, W. E. (1980). Analysis of the Vocalizations of Four Heron and Ibis Species. Proceedings of the Colonial Waterbird Group, 3, 216–224. JSTOR. https://doi.org/10.2307/4626716
  8. ↑ Hancock, J., Kushlan, J. A., & Kahl, M. P. (2010). Storks, Ibises and Spoonbills of the World (pp. 173–176). Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. (Original work published 1992)
  9. ↑ MARTIN, G. R., & PORTUGAL, S. J. (2011). Differences in foraging ecology determine variation in visual fields in ibises and spoonbills (Threskiornithidae). Ibis, 153(4), 662–671. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1474-919x.2011.01151.x
  10. ↑ Puna Ibis - eBird. (n.d.). Ebird.org. Retrieved November 5, 2025, from https://ebird.org/species/punibi1/
  11. ↑ Puna ibis | Meet our animals | Exmoor Zoo. (n.d.). Exmoor Zoo. Retrieved November 5, 2025, from https://www.exmoorzoo.co.uk/animal/puna-ibis/
  12. ↑ Ramirez, J. L., Miyaki, C., & Del Lama, S. N. (2013). Molecular phylogeny of Threskiornithidae (Aves: Pelecaniformes) based on nuclear and mitochondrial DNA. Genetics and Molecular Research : GMR, 12(3), 2740–2750. https://doi.org/10.4238/2013.July.30.11
  13. ↑ Unsöld, M., & Melzer, R. R. (2010). Sunning behaviour in ibis (Threskiornithidae) - Observations on four species and conclusions for captivity care. Der Zoologische Garten, 79(2-3), 89–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.zoolgart.2010.07.001
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