South West Africa Territorial Force

South West African Territorial Force
South West African Territorial Force
	SWATF Insignia
Active	1977–1989
Country	South West Africa
Branch	South African Defence Force
Size	10,100 (1981); 22,000 (1987)
Part of	Department of Defence for South West Africa
Garrison/HQ	Windhoek, South West Africa

Last updated September 05, 2024

Namibia, with a long Atlantic coastline, borders Angola, Botswana, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe LocationNamibia.png — Namibia, with a long Atlantic coastline, borders Angola, Botswana, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe

The South West Africa Territorial Force (SWATF) was an auxiliary arm of the South African Defence Force (SADF) and comprised the armed forces of South West Africa (now Namibia) from 1977 to 1989.^[1] It emerged as a product of South Africa's political control of the territory which was granted to the former as a League of Nations mandate following World War I.^[2]

History and background

From 1966 until 1989, South African security forces waged a long and bitter counterinsurgency conflict against indigenous nationalists in what was then South West Africa, represented by the Marxist South West African People's Organisation (SWAPO) and its military wing, the People's Liberation Army of Namibia (PLAN). As the guerrilla war intensified, however, it became clear that the local civilian police alone were not enough to cope with SWAPO/PLAN incursions and escalating unrest. Consequently, military units were deployed for the first time; 60,000 South African combat troops were engaged in South West Africa by the late 1970s.^[3]

Establishment

As part of a general policy of military and social reform, Pretoria initiated the establishment of local defence and police agencies for its protectorate beginning in 1977.^[1]

Structure and activation

A start was also made with the regrouping of existing units into four formations:

a Formation Headquarters Staff,
a Reaction Force (conventional),
an Area Force (Territorial) and
an Air Wing.

As regarding the latter, the South African Air Force would remain responsible for aerial operations although provision was made for an air commando squadron consisting of private and commercially qualified air crews. Their main function was to assist the South African Air Force in reconnaissance and communication flights and to provide operational officers for the operational service.

The new South West African Territorial Force was officially created on 1 August 1980, from South West African citizens already serving with the South African Defence Force.^[4]

Operationally, the SWATF was further divided into a Permanent Force infantry component, logistic/administrative divisions, a training wing, and a Citizen Force, which included at least three motorised infantry battalions.^[4] The 'permanent force' comprised mostly volunteer auxiliaries and national servicemen, who formed eight battalions.^[4] A militia system was also developed for local security, including over twenty 'area protection units'.^[1]

By 1981, SWATF's total strength numbered some 10,100 men, organised into both tribal-based battalions (including separate units for Ovambo, Herero, and Coloured ethnic groups) and multiethnic units partially manned by at least 10,000^[5] white South West African personnel.^[1]^[6]

By 1987, SWATF had an estimated 22,000 troops, including additional units of engineers, signals personnel, mounted troops, a parachute battalion, and a commando squadron.^[7]

Training

A school cadet program similar to that in South Africa was developed for South West Africa.

SWATF School Cadet program

Primarily all SWATF members received their initial training at 2 SA Infantry Battalion at Walvis Bay, (considered South African territory at that stage).^[8]

Advanced training, NCOs and Officer development however occurred at the SWA Military School at Okhandja.

SWATF Military School emblem

Supervision

For all practical purposes, SWATF remained firmly integrated into existing SADF command structures.^[1] Its primary goal was protection of the territory of SWA from SWAPO incursions.^[9] The SWATF was placed under the control of the Department of Defence for South West Africa and was always headed by a SADF general. There was also a joint SWATF/SADF committee established for "planning, liaison, and coordination" efforts.^[4] South West Africa Command also existed and was originally responsible for all of South West Africa but after the establishment of SWATF became responsible for the northern border area.

Uniform, rank structure, corps emblems, proficiency and ops badges

The first major step in the establishment of an independent territorial defence force in SWA was the introduction of a new nutria uniform on 6 September 1979 through which SWA units could be distinguished from SADF units.

Ranks

The rank structure of the SWATF was identical to that of the SADF. The insignia however differed considerably.^[10]

Rank group	General / flag officers										Senior officers						Junior officers
South West African Army ^[11] v t e
South West African Army ^[11] v t e					Lieutenant general		Major general		Brigadier		Colonel		Lieutenant colonel		Major		Captain		Lieutenant			Second lieutenant

Rank group	Senior NCOs																						Junior NCOs						Enlisted
South West African Army ^[11] v t e																													No insignia
South West African Army ^[11] v t e	Formation warrant officer			Warrant officer class 1			Warrant officer class 2		Staff sergeant		Sergeant												Corporal				Lance corporal		Private

Commanders

No.	Commander	Took office	Left office	Time in office	Ref.
1	Lloyd, CharlesMajor general Charles Lloyd	1980	9 November 1983	2–3 years	^[12]
2	Meiring, GeorgMajor general Georg Meiring SSA , SD , SM , MMM (1939–2024)	9 November 1983	23 January 1987	3 years, 75 days	^[12]
3	Meyer, WillieMajor general Willie Meyer	23 January 1987	1989	1–2 years	^[12]

Organization

Headquarters Formation

SWATF Headquarters SWATF Headquarters.jpg — SWATF Headquarters

The Reaction Force

Brigade

Reaction Force Brigade, mainly a Citizen and cross corps force, 91 Brigade had a motorised sub-brigade composing two (later three) infantry battalions, an armoured car regiment, and an artillery regiment. The Brigade also included a training battalion and a mobilisation center.

SWATF 91 Brigade emblem

Logistics Brigade

Battalions

Eight full-time battalions
- 31 Bushman Battalion (became 201 Battalion) HQ at Omega Base,
  
  SWA 31 Battalion emblem
- 32 Battalion at Buffalo,
- 33 Eastern Caprivi Battalion, (became 701 Battalion)
  
  SWATF 701 Battalion emblem
- 34 Kavangoland Battalion, (became 202 Battalion)
  
  SWATF 202 Battalion emblem
- 35 Ovamboland Battalion,
  
  SWA 101 Battalion emblem
  (became 101 Battalion ) The Quick reaction force.
- 36 Bushman Battalion, (became 203 Battalion)
  
  SWATF 36 203 Battalion emblem
- 37 Kaokoland Battalion, (became 102 Battalion)
  
  SWATF 102 Battalion emblem
- 41 Multi-ethnic Regiment Windhoek (became 911 Battalion) (As 911 Battalion – it became known as "Swing Force" due to its ability to operate as a conventional unit or as a Counter-insurgency (COIN) unit.
  
  SWATF 911 Battalion emblem
  It recruited from South West Africa at large and deployed predominantly as a reserve force. An infantry element, a mechanised contingent, artillery, and a regiment of Eland armoured cars was included.^[13] The unit was never mobilised en masse.

SWATF Special Forces

Although SWATF relied heavily on South Africa's special forces, over time it developed its own capability.

1 SWA Recon Regiment: started out as a sub unit under the command of the Commanding General SWATF in 1982, staffed mainly by ex South African operators.
Front-line Recon Wings: most front-line battalions, such as 31, 36 and 101 also had their own Recon Wings.

SWATF 101 Battalion Recon Wing emblem

1 SWA Specialist Unit:

SWATF 1 Spes emblem
at Otavi – containing trackers, dogs, horses and dirt bikes. By 1984, 1 SWA SPES was based at Omaruku and at Omathoni together with 32 Battalion's Recce Wing.
1 SWA Parachute Battalion: By 1987, 1 SWA Parachute Battalion and 32 Battalion's Recce Wing were amalgamated to become 2 SWA Specialist Unit or 2 SWA SPES and relocated to Luipersvallei, Windhoek.

The Area Force

SWATF Area Force SWATF Area Force.jpg — SWATF Area Force

South West African Military Operations Sectors

By 1979, South West Africa was subdivided into Operational Sectors. Three Frontline Sectors, 10, 20 and 70 fell under direct control of the South Africa Defence Force's South West Africa Command. Four additional Sectors, 30, 40, 50 and 60 covered the rest of South West Africa and was commanded directly by SWATF officers from 1980.

Frontline Sectors

Frontline Sectors were used for the massing of forces in preparation for external operations into Angola, acting as a buffer with the rest of the territory and reaction to immediate threats.

Although theoretically under control of the Area Force, due to their proximity to Angola the vast majority of conventional forces was based in these areas and remained under the direct control of South West Africa Command, a SADF regional command.

Sector 10

(Kaokoland and Owambo) – HQ Oshakati

SADF's 51 Battalion at Ruacana,

51 SADF Battalion
SADF's 52 Battalion at Oshakati,

SADF 52 Battalion emblem
SADF's 53 Battalion at Ondangwa,

SADF 53 Battalion emblem
SADF's 54 Battalion at Eenhana,

SADF 54 battalion
101 Battalion at Ondangwa and
102 Battalion at Opuwa,

Combined SADF and SWATF forces in Sector 10

SADF's Air Force Base Ondangwa,
SADF's 5 Maintenance Unit at Ondangwa,
SADF's Sector 10 Training Unit at Oshivelo,

SWATF Sector 10 Signals Unit emblem

SADF's Sector 10 Signals Unit at Oshikati,
SADF's Sector 10 Maintenance Unit at Oshikati,
SADF's Sector 10 Provost Unit at Oshikati,
SADF's 25 Engineering Squadron at Oshakati, and
SADF's 61 Mechanised Battalion Group at Omuthiya (although not SWATF, 61 Mech had its origins in South West Africa)

Sector 20

(Kavango and Western Caprivi) – HQ Rundu

SADF's 55 Battalion at Nepara.

SADF 55 Battalion
32 Battalion at Buffalo.
201 Battalion at Omega base,
202 Battalion at Rundu and
203 Battalion at Mangeti.

Special Service Companies for quick reaction

These frontline Sectors also had immediate reaction forces (Special Service Companies) to deal with any attack and were primarily infantry company strength and fully motorised.

905 SSC was based at Nepara in Sector 20 and deployed on Buffels.
906 SSC was based at Omahoni in Sector 20 and deployed on Buffels. Local Kwanyama troops made up the bulk of the personnel.

SADF units in Sector 20

SADF's Air Force Base Rundu and
SADF's 6 Maintenance Unit at Rundu.

Sector 70

(Eastern Caprivi) – HQ Mpacha Encompassed the Eastern Caprivi covering the Zambian border from Cuado to the Zambezi River.

SWATF 701 Battalion, at Mpacha with attached SWATF armoured car and artillery battery.

SWATF 701 Battalion emblem

SADF units in Sector 70

SADF's Air Force Base at Mpacha,
SADF's Navy Marine Company utilized for river patrols, and
SADF's 9 Maintenance Unit at Mpacha.

Countrywide Sectors

Apart from the Frontline Sectors, four additional Sectors existed. 26 Area Force Units, similar to the South African commando system, was established for these less vulnerable parts of the territory.

Sector 30

HQ Otjiwarongo (Citadel).

301 Bn at Otjiwarongo.

SWA 301 Battalion emblem

SWATF Otjiwarongo AME (Area Force Unit – Area Mag Eenheid), Outjo AME, Grootfontein AME, Tsumeb AME, Herreroland AME, Ethosa AME, Otavi AME, Damaraland AME and UIS PL. Its area of responsibility was likewise the Grootfontein, Tsumeb, Otavi, Outjo, Otjiwarongo, Hereroland and Damaraland regions.

SADF Units in Sector 30

SADF's Air Force Base Grootfontein
SADF's Northern Logistics Command at Grootfontein comprising:
- NLC 101 Workshop
- NLC Provost Unit
- NLC 6 Signals Unit
- NLC 16 Maintenance Unit

Sector 40

HQ Windhoek.

SWATF Alte Feste AME, Khomas AME, Hochl AME, Okahandja AME, Omaruru AME, Swakopmund AME, Rehoboth AME, Katatura AME and Khomasdal AME.

Other Units in this Sector:

Regiment Windhoek

1 SWA Provost Unit

Sector 50

HQ Gobabis.

SWATF Aranos AME, Auob AME, Bo-Nossob AME, Aminius PL, Gobabis AME, Rietfont AME, Mariental AME and Maltahohe AME.

Sector 60

HQ Keetmanshoop.

SWATF Karasburg AME, Keetmanshop AME, Hoop AME, Bethanien AME, Oranjemund AME, Luderitz AME and Namaland AME.

Air Wing

Aircrews

While the SWATF relied heavily on the South African Air Force for combat and heavy logistics transportation, it did have its own Air Wing, which consisted mainly of civilian aircraft.

1 SWA Commando Squadron was established as 112 Air Commando on 24 September 1963 in Windhoek. The unit was staffed by volunteer civilian aircraft. From 1968, control of 112 Commando squadron passed from the SA Army to the SAAF and it was transferred to Light Aircraft Command. In 1970, it was disbanded, but in 1980 it was re-established as part of the SWATF.

Medical Command

Equipment

Small arms

Name	Type	Country of Origin	Notes
Beretta 92	Semi-automatic pistol	Italy
Star	Semi-Automatic Pistol	Spain	Model 1920, 1921, 1922.
Uzi	Submachine gun	Israel	Some of local manufacture.
AK-47	Assault Rifle	Soviet Union	Captured.
AKM	Assault Rifle	Soviet Union	Captured.
R1	Battle Rifle	Belgium	Belgian design
Heckler & Koch G3	Battle Rifle	West Germany	G3A3, received from Portugal.
R4	Assault Rifle	South Africa	Derived from the IMI Galil
Bren	Light machine gun	United Kingdom	Mk 3.
Browning M2	Heavy machine gun	United States
Browning M1919	Medium machine gun	United States	Helicopter-mounted weapon.
FN MAG	General purpose machine gun	Belgium	MAG-58.
SS-77 machine gun	General purpose machine gun	South Africa
PKM	General purpose machine gun	Soviet Union	Captured.
RPD	Light machine gun	Soviet Union	Captured.
RPK	Light machine gun	Soviet Union	Captured.
FN Browning Auto-5	Shotgun	United States
Armsel Striker	Shotgun	South Africa
Dragunov	Sniper rifle	Soviet Union	Captured.
Armscor M963	Fragmentation grenade	South Africa	Made in South Africa, derived from INDEP's licence-made M26 grenade
Armscor 42 Zulu	Anti-personnel rifle grenade	South Africa	Derived from the Belgian PRB 424
Armscor AP-65^[14]	Anti-personnel rifle grenade	South Africa	Successor to the 42 Zulu, utilising a M26 and resembling a Dilagrama m/65
Mecar Energa	Anti-tank rifle grenade	Belgium	Made in South Africa
M18 Claymore	Anti-personnel mine	United States
Mine G.S. Mk V	Anti-tank mine	United Kingdom
M79 grenade launcher	Grenade Launcher	United States	Known as "snotneus"
Milkor MGL	Grenade Launcher	South Africa
M20 Super Bazooka	Anti-tank weapon	United States	3.5 inch rocket launcher.
STRIM 89mm rocket launcher	Anti-tank weapon	France	M20 replacement.
RPG-2	Anti-tank weapon	Soviet Union	Captured.
RPG-7	Anti-tank weapon	Soviet Union	Captured.

Vehicles

Armoured

Buffel APC/MRAP
Casspir APC/MRAP
Eland Mk7 Armoured Car
Wolf APC manufactured by Windhoeker Maschinenfabrik

Soft-skinned

Buffel armoured personnel carrier (1978)
Eland Mk7 Armoured Car
Kwêvoël 100 horse carrier

Counterinsurgency

A lot of effort was used to interdict insurgent groups that had crossed over the Angolan border. These Insurgents were on foot, but knew the land and moved fast. There have been stories of the insurgents moving incredible distances with little supplies, whilst being chased and if cornered putting up a good resistance to their followers. Adrenaline injections were found at some of the incident scenes after a fire fight.

These insurgents were normally stalked by using trained trackers, who directed the reaction force. In some instances a stopper group was choppered in to cut off the insurgents before they reached the border.

Demobilisation

Under UN resolution 435, the United Nations Transition Assistance Group was mobilised, while SWATF was demobilised, its strength in the last years of operation was at about 22,000. Special arrangements were made for two San units of SWATF, as they originated from local tribal communities. They were thus allocated land near their previous bases.

All citizen force units were demobilised.

The SWATF was completely demobilised on 1 June 1989.

Withdrawal of some units to South Africa

UN Resolution 435 additionally called on South Africa to reduce its forces in Namibia to 12,000 before the start of any peace process and finally to 1,500 by 1989. Several thousand former SWATF members, especially from the San people who feared reprisals or intimidation, left for South Africa with the withdrawing SADF.

SWA 31 Battalion emblem

SWATF 36 203 Battalion emblem

32 Battalion, whose members to a large extent could not claim Namibian citizenship, also withdrew to South Africa completely.

Related Research Articles

The Battle of Cassinga also known as the Cassinga Raid or Kassinga Massacre was a controversial South African airborne attack on a South West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO) military camp at the town of Cassinga, Angola on 4 May 1978. Conducted as one of the three major actions of Operation Reindeer during the South African Border War, it was the South African Army's first major air assault operation.

Operation Daisy was a military operation conducted from November 1–20, 1981 by the South African Defence Force and South West African Territorial Force (SWATF) in Angola during the South African Border War and Angolan Civil War. This conflict was sparked when the South African Defence Force decided to try to halt the regroup of the active military branch of SWAPO, also known as the People's Liberation Army of Namibia.

Operation Prone was a proposed military operation by the South African Defence Force (SADF) and South West African Territorial Force (SWATF) during the South African Border War and Angolan Civil War between May and September 1988. With the advance of the 50th Cuban Division towards Calueque and the South-West Africa border, the SADF formed the 10 SA Division to counter this threat. The plan for Operation Prone had two phases. Operation Linger was to be a counterinsurgency phase and Operation Pact a conventional phase.

Operation Sceptic was the largest anti-South West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO) sweep during the South African Border War up to that point. The operation was also known as Smokeshell though this was the codename for the People's Liberation Army of Namibia (PLAN) base which was the main focus of the attack. This operation followed Operation Safraan and preceded Operation Klipklop.

Articles related to Namibia include:

Vehicle registration plates of Namibia are yellow fluorescent metal plates with imprints in black. The standard version is uniform throughout the country, and carries one of the following forms:

44 Parachute Brigade was a parachute infantry brigade of the South African Army. It was founded on 20 April 1978, by Colonel Jan Breytenbach, following the disbandment of 1 SA Corps and the battle of Cassinga. Upon formation, the brigade was commanded by Brigadier M. J. du Plessis, who was assigned the task of establishing by working with the Parachute Staff Officer, Colonel Jan Breytenbach. At the time du Plessis was the commanding officer of the Orange Free State Command and had previous experience serving in 1 Parachute Battalion. Breytenbach had also been a member of 1 Parachute Battalion and had also founded the South African Special Forces Brigade and 32 Battalion. The location that was chosen for the brigade's headquarters was in the lines of the OFS Cmd Headquarters, next to the old Tempe Airfield in Bloemfontein.

The rail service in Namibia is provided by TransNamib. The Namibian rail network consists of 2,687 km of tracks (2017).

Operation Boswilger was a military operation executed by the South West Africa Territorial Force in June 1985 during the South African Border War and Angolan Civil War. The SADF soldiers pursued SWAPO's, PLAN insurgents, who had attacked infrastructure, out of South West Africa/Namibia across the border into Angola.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">44 Pathfinder Platoon</span> Military unit

The 44 Pathfinder Platoon is part of the 44 Parachute Regiment. The pathfinder is a trained and specialized paratrooper, who performs covertly behind enemy lines, either in small groups or in collaboration with other reconnaissance units.

Operation Excite/Hilti was a set of military operations by the South African Defence Force (SADF) during the Angolan Civil War and South African Border War.

The Namibian Army is the ground warfare branch of the Namibian Defence Force.

Operation Merlyn was a military operation by the South African Defence Force (SADF), South West African Territorial Force (SWATF) and South West African Police (SWAPOL) during the South African Border War and Angolan Civil War in April 1989. The aim of the operation was to prevent the incursion of PLAN (SWAPO) insurgents into South West Africa/Namibia from bases in Angola. These incursions were in violation of a ceasefire which came into effect on 1 April 1989 via the implementation of United Nations Security Council Resolution 435 and the Tripartite Accord. Initially, these PLAN incursions were tackled by South West African police units and eventually by SADF and SWATF units, released to assist the police having been confined to their bases by the peace agreements. These incursions and the conflict that occurred ended after hastily arranged talks resulted in the Mount Etjo Declaration and an eventual ceasefire.

8 South African Infantry Battalion is a mechanized infantry unit of the South African Army. The battalion is equipped with Ratel Infantry Fighting Vehicles (IFV) used for fast transport and combat mobility across rough ground. Support weapons for mechanized infantry are also provided with motorized transport, or are built directly into these IFVs, in order to keep pace with the IFVs in combat. The battalion was raised at Upington in the Northern Cape in 1973 as part of the South African Infantry Corps, and since the change in structure, has been assigned to the Infantry Formation.

34 Battalion was a light infantry battalion that was part of the SWATF.

33 Battalion or the Eastern Caprivi Battalion, was a light infantry battalion that was part of the SWATF.

36 Battalion was a light infantry battalion in the South African Army and in later years became part of the SWATF.

Regiment Erongo was a quick-reaction unit of the South West African Territorial Force.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">913 Battalion (SWATF)</span> Military unit

913 Battalion was part of 91 South West African Brigade.

South West Africa Command was a command of the South African Army.

References

1 2 3 4 5 Duignan, Peter. Politics and Government in African States 1960–1985. pp. 345–377.
↑ "SWAPO – SWATF/Koevoet". Swapoparty.org. Retrieved 30 April 2013.
↑ Fryxell, Cole. To Be Born a Nation. pp. 1–357.
1 2 3 4 Modern African Wars (3): South West Africa (Men-At-Arms Series, 242) by Helmoed-Romer Heitman (Author), Paul Hannon (Illustrator) Osprey Publishing (28 November 1991) ISBN 1-85532-122-X and ISBN 978-1-85532-122-9
↑ Tonchi, Victor; Lindeke, William; Grotpeter, John. Historical Dictionary of Namibia. p. 405.
↑ FishEagle (21 February 2010). "I Luv SA: The Namibian Border War: an appraisal of the South African strategy (Part 6)". Iluvsa.blogspot.com. Retrieved 30 April 2013.
↑ "SADF.info". SADF.info. Retrieved 30 April 2013.
↑ "Introducing the SWATF" (PDF). Financial Mail (Supplement). 10 July 1987. pp. 44–47. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 February 2018.
↑ "Military Chronicle of South West Africa". Rhodesia.nl. Retrieved 30 April 2013.
↑ Radburn, Arthur (1990). "South African Army Ranks and Insignia". South African Journal of Military Studies. 20 (2): 2.
1 2 Radburn, A. (22 February 2012). "SOUTH AFRICAN ARMY RANKS AND INSIGNIA". Scientia Militaria: South African Journal of Military Studies. 20 (2): 1–4. Retrieved 3 June 2021.
1 2 3 "SWATF Operations". SADF.info. Retrieved 23 December 2014.
↑ Helmoed-Römer Heitman (1991). Modern African Wars: South West Africa (1991 ed.). Osprey Publishing. p. 17. ISBN 978-1855321229.
↑ "Armed soldier of the 911 Battalion" (image/jpeg). Bush of Ghosts. Photographed by John Liebenberg. Cape Town: www.uct.ac.za/. 1989. Retrieved 5 May 2016. 911 Battalion patrol, the front soldier armed with an R4 rifle with an AP-65 (anti-personnel) rifle grenade.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: others (link)

v t e South African Border War
Participants	South Africa (SADF, SWATF) SWAPO (PLAN) Angola (FAPLA) UNITA Cuba
Related conflicts	Angolan Civil War Internal resistance to apartheid Cold War
Background	German South West Africa South African administration Bondelswarts affair 1946 referendum Apartheid (Bantustans in South West Africa) Decolonisation of Africa Old Location shootings Ovamboland People's Organization
Events	1966: Battle of Omugulugwombashe 1970: Alcora Exercise 1975: Alvor Agreement Operation Savannah Cuban intervention in Angola Turnhalle Convention 1978: Operation Reindeer (Battle of Cassinga) Settlement Proposal 1979: Operation Rekstok Operation Saffraan 1980: Operation Sceptic 1981: Operation Protea Operation Daisy Operation Kerslig 1983: Operation Askari 1984: Lusaka Accords Angola–Cuba Declaration 1985: Operation Argon Operation Magneto Operation Wallpaper Aeroflot An-12 shoot-down 1986: Operation Alpha Centauri 1987: Battle of Cuito Cuanavale begins Operation Moduler Operation Hooper 1988: Operation Packer Operation Displace Operation Excite/Hilti Brazzaville Protocol Tripartite Accord Oshakati bombing 1989: Operation Merlyn
Aftermath	United Nations Transition Assistance Group (Australian contribution) 1989 Namibian parliamentary elections Caprivi conflict Bicesse Accords
Memorials	Heroes' Acre Freedom Park Fort Klapperkop
Related topics	32 Battalion Cassinga Day Cuba–Angola airbridge Constructive engagement Democratic International End Conscription Campaign Heroes' Day Koevoet Operation IA Feature South Africa and weapons of mass destruction (Project Coast) Southern Africa Freedom Trail Western Contact Group
Category Battles and operations