Transliteration of Ancient Egyptian

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As used for Egyptology, transliteration of Ancient Egyptian is the process of converting (or mapping) texts written as Egyptian language symbols to alphabetic symbols representing uniliteral hieroglyphs or their hieratic and demotic counterparts. This process facilitates the publication of texts where the inclusion of photographs or drawings of an actual Egyptian document is impractical.

Contents

Transliteration is not the same as transcription. Transliteration is the representation of written symbols in a consistent way in a different writing system, while transcription indicates the pronunciation of a text. For the case of Ancient Egyptian, precise details of the phonology are not known completely. Transcription systems for Ancient Egyptian do exist, but they rely on linguistic reconstruction (depending on evidence from the Coptic language and other details) and are thus theoretical in nature. Egyptologists rely on transliteration in scientific publications.

Standards

Important as transliteration is for Egyptology, there is no one standard scheme in use for hieroglyphic and hieratic texts. However, there are a few closely related systems that can be regarded as conventional. Many non-German-speaking Egyptologists use the system described in Gardiner 1954, whereas many German-speaking scholars opt for that used in the Wörterbuch der ägyptischen Sprache (Erman and Grapow 1926–1953), the standard dictionary of the ancient Egyptian language. However, there is a growing trend, even among English-speaking scholars, to adopt a modified version of the method used in the Wörterbuch (e.g., Allen 2000).

Although these conventional methods of transliteration have been used since the second half of the nineteenth century to the present time, there have been some attempts to adopt a modified system that seeks to use the International Phonetic Alphabet to a certain extent. The most successful of these is that developed by Wolfgang Schenkel (1990), and it is being used fairly widely in Germany and other German-speaking countries. More recent is a proposal by Thomas Schneider (2003) that is even closer to the IPA, but its usage is not presently common. The major criticism of both of these systems is that they give an impression of being scientifically accurate with regard to the pronunciation of Egyptian, though the actual accuracy is debatable. Moreover, the systems represent only the theoretical pronunciation of Middle Egyptian and not the older and later phases of the language, which are themselves to be transliterated with the same system.

Table of transliteration schemes

Although the system of Egyptian hieroglyphs is very complicated, there are only 24 consonantal phonemes distinguished, according to Edel (1955) [1] transliterated and ordered alphabetically in the sequence:

ꜣ j ꜥ w b p f m n r h ḥ ḫ ẖ z s š q k g t ṯ d ḏ

A number of variant conventions are used interchangeably depending on the author.

The following table shows several transliteration schemes. The first column shows the uniliteral hieroglyph (see #Uniliteral signs below) corresponding to the sound.

Conventional Transliteration Schemes
GlyphBrugschErmanBudgeErman &
Grapow		GardinerEdel Manuel de
Codage 		HodgeSchenkelHannig;
Allen		HochSchneiderLeiden UnifiedConventional
Egyptological
pronunciation
1889189419101926–195319571955 [1] 1988199019911995;
2000		199720032023
𓄿ꜣꜣaꜣꜣꜣAꜣꜣꜣꜣɹꜣ/ɑ,ɑː/
𓇋ʾı͗ȧı͗, jı͗jiʔı͗jı͗ı͗ı͗/i,iː,j/
𓏭"ïijyjyyı͗jyı͗ï/iː/
𓇌ʾʾyijyjj, jyyyyyyy/iː/
𓂝ꜥꜥāꜥꜥꜥaꜥꜥꜥꜥɗꜥ/ɑː/
𓅱wwuwwwwwwwwww/w,uː/
𓃀bbbbbbbbbbbbb/b/
𓊪ppppppppppppp/p/
𓆑fffffffffffff/f/
𓅓mmmmmmmmmmmmm/m/
𓈖nnnnnnnnnnnnn/n/
𓂋r, lrr, lrrrrrrrrlr/ɾ/
𓉔hhhhhhhhhhhhh/h/
𓎛ḥḥḥḥḥḥHḥḥḥḥḥḥ/ħ,h/
𓐍ḫḫχ, khḫḫḫxxḫḫḫḫḫ/x/
𓄡ḫḫχ, khẖẖẖXx̯ẖẖẖẖẖ/ç/
𓊃sssss (z)zs, zzszssz/z,s/
𓋴sssśs (ś)sssśssśs/s/
𓈙ššś, shšššSšššššš/ʃ/
𓈎ḳḳqḳḳqqqḳqqḳq/k,q/
𓎡kkkkkkkkkkkkk/k/
𓎼ggḳgggggggggg/ɡ/
𓏏ttttttttttttt/t/
𓍿ṯṯθ, thṯṯṯTččṯṯcṯ/tʃ/
𓂧ddṭdddddṭddḍd/d/
𓆓ḏḏt', tchḏḏḏDǧč̣ḏḏc̣ḏ/dʒ/

The vowel /ɛ/ is conventionally inserted between consonants to make Egyptian words pronounceable in English.

Examples

The following text is transliterated below in some of the more common schemes. Note that most of the hieroglyphs in this text are not uniliteral signs, but can be found in the List of Egyptian hieroglyphs.

Transliteration of Ancient EgyptianTransliteration of Ancient Egyptian
Transliteration of Ancient Egyptian		Transliteration of Ancient EgyptianTransliteration of Ancient Egyptian
Transliteration of Ancient Egyptian		Transliteration of Ancient EgyptianTransliteration of Ancient EgyptianTransliteration of Ancient EgyptianTransliteration of Ancient EgyptianTransliteration of Ancient Egyptian
Transliteration of Ancient Egyptian		Transliteration of Ancient EgyptianTransliteration of Ancient EgyptianTransliteration of Ancient EgyptianTransliteration of Ancient Egyptian
Transliteration of Ancient Egyptian		Transliteration of Ancient Egyptian
Transliteration of Ancient Egyptian		Transliteration of Ancient EgyptianTransliteration of Ancient Egyptian
Transliteration of Ancient Egyptian
Transliteration of Ancient EgyptianTransliteration of Ancient Egyptian		Transliteration of Ancient Egyptian
Transliteration of Ancient Egyptian

Unicode: 𓇓𓏏𓐰𓊵𓏙𓊩𓐰𓁹𓏃𓋀𓅂𓊹𓉻𓐰𓎟𓍋𓈋𓃀𓊖𓐰𓏤𓄋𓐰𓈐𓏦𓎟𓐰𓇾𓐰𓈅𓐱𓏤𓂦𓐰𓈉

(This text is conventionally translated into English as "an offering that the king gives; and Osiris, Foremost of Westerners [i.e., the Dead], the Great God, Lord of Abydos; and Wepwawet, Lord of the Sacred Land [i.e., the Necropolis]." It can also be translated "a royal offering of Osiris, Foremost of the Westerners, the Great God, Lord of Abydos; and of Wepwawet, Lord of the Sacred Land" [Allen 2000:§24.10].)

Erman and Grapow 1926–1953

Gardiner 1953

Buurman, Grimal, et al. 1988

A fully encoded, machine-readable version of the same text is:
  • M23-X1:R4-X8-Q2:D4-W17-R14-G4-R8-O29:V30-U23-N26-D58-O49:Z1-F13:N31-Z2-V30:N16:N21*Z1-D45:N25

Schenkel 1991

Allen 2000

Schneider 2003

Demotic

As the latest stage of pre-Coptic Egyptian, demotic texts have long been transliterated using the same system(s) used for hieroglyphic and hieratic texts. However, in 1980, Demotists adopted a single, uniform, international standard based on the traditional system used for hieroglyphic, but with the addition of some extra symbols for vowels and other letters that were written in the demotic script. The Demotic Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago (or CDD) utilises this method. As this system is likely only of interest to specialists, for details see the references below.

Encoding

In 1984 a standard, ASCII-based transliteration system was proposed by an international group of Egyptologists at the first Table ronde informatique et égyptologie and published in 1988 (see Buurman, Grimal, et al., 1988). This has come to be known as the Manuel de Codage (or MdC) system, based on the title of the publication, Inventaire des signes hiéroglyphiques en vue de leur saisie informatique: Manuel de codage des textes hiéroglyphiques en vue de leur saisie sur ordinateur. It is widely used in e-mail discussion lists and internet forums catering to professional Egyptologists and the interested public.

Although the Manuel de codage system allows for simple "alphabetic" transliterations, it also specifies a complex method for electronically encoding complete ancient Egyptian texts, indicating features such as the placement, orientation, and even size of individual hieroglyphs. This system is used (though frequently with modifications) by various computer programs developed for typesetting hieroglyphic texts (such as SignWriter, WinGlyph, MacScribe, InScribe, Glyphotext, WikiHiero, and others).

Unicode

With the introduction of the Latin Extended Additional block to Unicode version 1.1 (1992), the addition of Egyptological alef and ayin to Unicode version 5.1 (2008) and the addition of Glottal I alias Egyptological yod to Unicode version 12.0 (2019), it is now possible to fully transliterate Egyptian texts using a Unicode typeface. The following table lists only the special characters used for various transliteration schemes (see above).

Transcription characters in Unicode
Minuscule ꜣ ( Latin small letter egyptological Alef.svg ) ʾ ( Latin small letter egyptological secondary aleph.svg ) ꞽ ( Latin small letter glottal i (egyptological yod).svg ) i̯ïꜥ ( Latin small letter egyptological Ain.svg ) u̯ḥḫẖh̭
Unicode U+A723 U+02BE U+A7BD U+0069
U+032F 		U+00EF U+A725 U+0075
U+032F 		U+1E25 U+1E2B U+1E96 U+0068
U+032D
Majuscule ꜢꞼ ( Latin capital letter glottal i (egyptological yod).svg ) ꜤḤḪH̱H̭
Unicode U+A722 U+A7BC U+A724 U+1E24 U+1E2A U+0048
U+0331 		U+0048
U+032D
Minuscule śšḳčṯṭṱč̣ḏ
Unicode U+015B U+0161 U+1E33 U+010D U+1E6F U+1E6D U+1E71 U+010D
U+0323 		U+1E0F
Majuscule ŚŠḲČṮṬṰČ̣Ḏ
Unicode U+015A U+0160 U+1E32 U+010C U+1E6E U+1E6C U+1E70 U+010C
U+0323 		U+1E0E
Brackets/
interpunction 		⸗⟨⟩⸢⸣
Unicode U+2E17 U+27E8 U+27E9 U+2E22 U+2E23

Egyptological alef, ayin, and yod

Three characters that are specific to the discipline are required for transliterating Egyptian:

  • Alef ( Latin small letter egyptological Alef.svg , two Semitistic alephs, one set over the other (Lepsius); approximated by the digit ⟨3⟩ in ASCII); [2]
  • Ayin ( Latin small letter egyptological Ain.svg , a Semitistic ayin);
  • Yod ( Latin small letter glottal i (egyptological yod).svg , i with a Semitistic aleph instead of the dot, both yod and alef being considered possible sound values in the 19th century). [3]

Although three Egyptological and Ugariticist letters were proposed in August 2000, [4] it was not until 2008 (Unicode 5.1) two of the three letters were encoded: aleph and ayin (minor and capital). Another two proposals were made regarding the Egyptological yod, [5] [6] the eventual result of which was to accept the use of the Cyrillic psili pneumata (U+0486◌҆) as one of several possible diacritics for this purpose. The other options use the superscript comma (U+0313) and the right half ring above (U+0357). A new attempt for a sign called LETTER I WITH SPIRITUS LENIS was made in 2017. [7] Within the Egyptological community objections were made concerning this name. [8] The proposed name was changed to EGYPTOLOGICAL YOD [9] before finally becoming GLOTTAL I. [10] The sign was added in March 2019 with the release of Unicode 12.0. One of the first fonts that implemented the full set of signs is New Athena Unicode. [11]

DesignationLowercaseCapital
Egyptological alefꜣ
U+A723		Ꜣ
U+A722
Egyptological ayinꜥ
U+A725		Ꜥ
U+A724
Egyptological yod Latin small letter glottal i (egyptological yod).svg
U+A7BD		Ꞽ
U+A7BC

Before the usage of the above-mentioned Unicode signs, various workarounds were in practice, e.g.

Egyptological workarounds
DesignationLowercaseCapital
Middle English yogh [12] ȝ
U+021D
Reverse sicilicus [12] ʿ
U+02BF
Right half ring above  [13] i͗
U+0069 U+0357		I͗
U+0049 U+0357
ı͗
U+0131 U+0357  [14]
I with hook above  [12] ỉ
U+1EC9		Ỉ
U+1EC8
Cyrillic psili pneumatai҆
U+0069 U+0486		I҆
U+0049 U+0486
Superscript commai̓
U+0069 U+0313		I̓
U+0049 U+0313

Uniliteral signs

Middle Egyptian is reconstructed as having had 24 consonantal phonemes. There is at least one hieroglyph with a phonetic value corresponding to each of these phonemes.

The table below gives a list of such "uniliteral signs" along with their conventional transcription and their conventional "Egyptological pronunciation" and probable phonetic value.

Many hieroglyphs are coloured, though the paint has worn off most stone inscriptions. Colors vary, but many glyphs are predominantly one colour or another, or a particular combination (such as red on the top and blue on the bottom). In some cases, two graphically similar glyphs may be distinguished solely by colour, though in other cases it's not known if the choice of colour had any meaning.

Uniliteral signs
SignEgyptological transliteration and pronunciationPhonetic values (IPA) [15] [16] [17] [18]
HieroglyphSign ColourDepictionTransliteration Say (modern) [19] NotesOld EgyptianMiddle Egyptian
𓄿Polychrome Egyptian vulture ꜣahCalled alef or hamza,
a glottal stop 		some form of liquid;
proposed values include
/ʀ/, /r/, /l/, /ɫ/		variously /ʀ/, /ʔ/, and /j/
𓇋GreenFlowering reedꞽ or jeeCalled iod/j/ or /ʔ/ (?)
𓇌GreenPair of reedsy or jy or eeCalled yod or ynot used/j/
𓏭BluePair of strokesy or j or ïnot used/j/ or /i/ (?)
𓂝RedForearmꜥahCalled aayin /ʕ/, or debatably /d/ [20] /ʕ/;
/d/ perhaps retained in
some words and dialects
𓅱 𓏲Yellow Quail chick or its
hieratic abbreviation		ww or ooCalled wau
/w/
𓃀RedLower legbb /b/
𓊪GreenReed mat or stool pp /p/
𓆑Yellow Horned viper ff /f/
𓅓Yellow Owl mm /m/
𓈖Black Ripple of water nn /n/
𓂋RedHuman mouth rr /ɾ/, sometimes /l/
(dialectally always /l/)		variously /ɾ/, /l/, /j/, ∅
(dialectally /l/, /j/, ∅)
𓉔Blue Reed shelter hh /h/
𓎛GreenTwisted wickḥhAn emphatic h,
a voiceless pharyngeal fricative 		/ħ/
𓐍GreenSieve or placentaḫkh Voiceless velar fricative /χ/ ~ /x/, or speculatively /​ɣ/(?)
𓄡Attested in multiple colorsAnimal belly and tailẖkh; hy as in humanA softer sound,
a voiceless palatal fricative 		/ç/, or speculatively /x/(?)
𓊃Red Door bolt z or sz/svery unclear;
proposed values include
/z/, /t͡s/, /sʼ/, /θ/		/s/
𓋴Red Folded cloth s or śs/s/
𓈙 𓈚 𓈛 𓈜BlueGarden poolšsh /ʃ/
𓈎BlueHill slopeḳ or qqAn emphatic k,
a voiceless uvular plosive 		/kʼ/ or /qʼ/(?)
(exact phonetic distinction from ⟨g⟩ unclear)
𓎡 𓎢GreenBasket with handlekk /k/
𓎽 𓎼Red Jar stand gg /kʼ/ or /g/(?)
(exact phonetic distinction from ⟨q⟩ unclear)
𓏏Blue Bread loaf tt /t//t/ ~ ∅
𓍿Green Tethering rope or hobbleṯ or čchAs in English church/c//c/ ~ /t/ ~ ∅
𓂧Red Hand d or ṭd /tʼ/
𓆓YellowCobraḏ or č̣j /cʼ//cʼ/ ~ /tʼ/

See also

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References

Citations

  1. 1 2 E. Edel, Altägyptische Grammatik, Analecta Orientalia 34, 39, Rome (1955, 1964).
  2. ↑ Carsten Peust, Egyptian Phonology: Introduction to the Phonology of a Dead Language (Göttingen, 1999), 127.
  3. ↑ Peust, Egyptian Phonology, p. 50, 99ff.
  4. ↑ Everson, Michael. Proposal to add 6 Egyptological characters to the UCS, 2000-08-27
  5. ↑ Everson, Michael and Bob Richmond, EGYPTOLOGICAL YOD and Cyrillic breathing, 2008-04-08
  6. ↑ Everson, Michael, Proposal to encode Egyptological Yod and similar characters in the UCS, 2008-08-04
  7. ↑ Michel Suignard, Proposal to encode Egyptological Yod and similar characters in the UCS, 2017-05-09 (cf. the later 2008 proposal).
  8. ↑ "The Egyptian June 2017 Archive by thread". evertype.com. Retrieved Dec 29, 2022.
  9. ↑ Moore, Lisa (2018-02-02). "L2/17-362: UTC #153 Minutes".
  10. ↑ Moore, Lisa (2018-11-20). "L2/18-183: UTC #156 Minutes".
  11. ↑ "New Athena Unicode Font Download". apagreekkeys.org. Retrieved Dec 29, 2022.
  12. 1 2 3 See IFAO - Polices de caractères
  13. ↑ "New Athena Unicode Font Download". ucbclassics.dreamhosters.com. Retrieved Dec 29, 2022.
  14. ↑ "Unicode - Glossing Ancient Languages". wikis.hu-berlin.de. Retrieved Dec 29, 2022.
  15. ↑ Loprieno, Antonio (2001) "From Ancient Egyptian to Coptic" in Haspelmath, Martin et al. (eds.), Language Typology and Language Universals
  16. ↑ Peust, Carsten (1999) Egyptian Phonology: An Introduction to the Phonology of a Dead Language, Göttingen: Peust und Gutschmidt Verlag GbR
  17. ↑ Allen, James P. (2013) The Ancient Egyptian Language: An Historical Study, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
  18. ↑ Kammerzell, Frank (2005). Old Egyptian and Pre-Old Egyptian : Tracing Linguistic Diversity in Archaic Egypt and the Creation of the Egyptian Language. Achet. ISBN   9783933684202 . Retrieved Dec 29, 2022– via edoc.bbaw.de.
  19. ↑ Allen, James Paul. 2000. Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, chapter 2.6.
  20. ↑ Gensler, Orin D. (2014) "A typological look at Egyptian *d > ʕ" in Grossman, Eitan; Haspelmath, Martin; and Richter, Tonio Sebastian (eds.), Egyptian-Coptic Linguistics in Typological Perspective

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