The title "pharaoh" is used for those rulers of Ancient Egypt who ruled after the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt by Narmer during the Early Dynastic Period, approximately 3100 BC. However, the specific title was not used to address the kings of Egypt by their contemporaries until the New Kingdom's 18th Dynasty, c. 1400 BC. Along with the title pharaoh for later rulers, there was an Ancient Egyptian royal titulary used by Egyptian kings which remained relatively constant during the course of Ancient Egyptian history, initially featuring a Horus name, a Sedge and Bee (nswt-bjtj) name and a Two Ladies (nbtj) name, with the additional Golden Horus, nomen and prenomen titles being added successively during later dynasties.
Egypt was continually governed, at least in part, by native pharaohs for approximately 2500 years, until it was conquered by the Kingdom of Kush in the late 8th century BC, whose rulers adopted the traditional pharaonic titulature for themselves. Following the Kushite conquest, Egypt experienced another period of independent native rule before being conquered by the Achaemenid Empire, whose rulers also adopted the title of pharaoh. The last native pharaoh of Egypt was Nectanebo II, who was pharaoh before the Achaemenids conquered Egypt a second time.
Modern lists of pharaohs are based on historical records and, including Ancient Egyptian king lists and later histories, such as Manetho's Aegyptiaca, as well as archaeological evidence. Concerning ancient sources, Egyptologists and historians alike call for caution in regard to the credibility, exactitude and completeness of these sources, many of which were written long after the reigns they report.[5] An additional problem is that ancient king lists are often damaged, inconsistent with one another and/or selective.
The following ancient king lists are known (along with the dynasty under which they were created):[6]
Manetho's Aegyptiaca (Greek Period); possibly written on papyrus. The original writings are lost today and many anecdotes assigned to certain kings seem fictitious.
The Palermo Stone mentions at least fourteen predynastic pharaohs from Lower Egypt, of which at least five whose names have been fully destroyed. Four of the five destroyed names succeed "(…)a".
Only known from clay and stone vessels found in tombs near Tarchan, Tura, Tarjan, and Nagada. Some scholars believe that this serekh is simply a crude attempt at writing the name "Narmer".[17]
These rulers are prior to the First Dynasty, and as such they have informally been grouped as the 0th Dynasty to separate them from the rulers before them.
The following list of predynastic rulers may be incomplete:
Believed by many scholars to be the same person as Menes, due to the preponderance of evidence indicating this.[40] His name is widely attested across Egypt, and has also been found at Nahal Tillah in Israel, which is much farther afield than his predecessors.[41]
May also be Menes although Narmer is more likely.[40] Trade was largely replaced by direct exploitation of resources via outposts during his reign.[44] Possibly the son of Narmer.
His tomb was later thought to be the legendary tomb of Osiris. First pharaoh with a full Golden Horus name. Interest and trade with Egypt's North Eastern borders appears to have been renewed during Djer's reign.[44]
Possibly the first female pharaoh of Egypt. She may have ruled as regent for her son Den. Her tomb is notable for being on the same scale as other tombs of other kings of that period.
Den was the first pharaoh to have a Nesut-biti (dual king) name, and is the first pharaoh attested wearing the double crown (pschent) of upper and lower Egypt.[52] A second sed festival is attested from his reign, indicating he enjoyed a long time in power.[52]Den focused on the northeastern part of Egypt during his reign, and also led a few small battles in the northeast which are attested on the Palermo stone.[53]
First Egyptian ruler with a fully developed Nebty name. His complete reign is preserved on the Cairo Stone. Many stone vessels of his predecessor were found reinscribed for Semerkhet so he may have been a usurper.[58]
Manetho names him Boëthos and reports that under this ruler an earthquake killed many people. Hotepsekhemwy broke the tradition of being buried at the Abydos royal cemetery at Umm-el-Qa'ab, where most of the 1st dynasty kings are buried, and chose to be buried at Saqqara instead to be closer to the capital.[61]
May have been an independent ruler succeeding Nynetjer. Alternatively, he may have ruled in the 1st or 3rd dynasties or be the same person as Horus Bird.
May have been a misinterpretation of the hieroglyphic sign of a flower called Weneg. May have been a crown prince or be the same person as Weneg-Nebty.
Used a Seth-animal above his serekh rather than a Horus falcon. He promoted the sun-cult in Egypt and reduced the powers of officials, nomarchs and palatines. Some scholars believe that he ruled over a divided Egypt.[67]
Known only from Ramesside king lists, not archaeologically attested. Old Kingdom legends claim that this ruler saved Egypt from a long-lasting drought.[69]
Known only from Ramesside king lists, his "name" is actually a paraphrase pointing out that the original name of the king was already lost in Ramesside times.
It is probable that when Khasekhem acceded kingship he was a ruler of upper Egypt, he led campaigns against lower Egypt that ended in his victory, to commemorate his achievement of reunifying Egypt he changed his name to Khasekhemwy.[61] His serekh name is unique for presenting both Horus and Set. He was one of Egypt's first master builders, his funerary enclosure known as Shunet-ez-Zebib is a colossal mudbrick structure.[70]
Likely to be identified with the throne name Nebka. May have reigned 6 years if identified with the penultimate king of the Dynasty on the Turin canon.
Known only from the Abydos King List, his "name" is actually a paraphrase pointing out that the original name of the king was already lost in Ramesside times.
Possibly built an unfinished step pyramid, could be identical with Huni. His "Personal name" is actually a paraphrase pointing out that the original name of the king was already lost in Ramesside times.
Could be the same as Qahedjet or Khaba. Possibly built an unfinished step pyramid and several cultic pyramids throughout Egypt. Huni was for a long time credited with the building of the pyramid of Meidum. This, however, is disproved by New Kingdom graffiti that praise king Sneferu, not Huni.
Reigned for around 24 years, giving him enough time to build the Meidum Pyramid, the Bent Pyramid and the Red Pyramid. Some scholars believe that he was buried in the Red Pyramid. For a long time it was thought that the Meidum Pyramid was not Sneferu's work, but that of king Huni. Ancient Egyptian documents describe Sneferu as a pious, generous and even accostable ruler.[77]
Built the Great Pyramid of Giza. Khufu is depicted as a cruel tyrant by ancient Greek authors; Ancient Egyptian sources however describe him as a generous and pious ruler. He is the main protagonist in the Westcar Papyrus. The first imprinted papyri originate from Khufu's reign, which may have made ancient Greek authors believe that Khufu wrote books in attempt to praise the gods.
Some scholars believe he created the Great Sphinx of Giza as a monument for his deceased father. He also created a pyramid at Abu Rawash. However, this pyramid is no longer extant; it is believed the Romans re-purposed the materials from which it was made.
His pyramid is the second largest in Giza. Some scholars prefer him as the creator of the Great Sphinx before Djedefra. His funerary complex was the largest at the Giza plateau.
His pyramid is the third and smallest in Giza. A legend claims that his only daughter died due to an illness and Menkaura buried her in a golden coffin in the shape of a cow.
The Pyramid of Unas is inscribed with the earliest instance of the Pyramid Texts. He also constructed Unas's causeway a 500m long causeway from the bank of the river Nile to his funerary complex, this is where his funerary precession would have taken place.
This male king gave rise to the legendary queen Nitocris of Herodotus and Manetho.[80] Sometimes classified as the first king of the combined 7th/8th Dynasties.
The Old Kingdom rapidly collapsed after the death of Pepi II. He had reigned for more than 64 and likely up to 94 years, longer than any monarch in history. The latter years of his reign were marked by inefficiency because of his advanced age. The union of the Two Kingdoms fell apart and regional leaders had to cope with the resulting famine.
The kings of the 7th and 8th Dynasties, who represented the successors of the 6th Dynasty, tried to hold onto some power in Memphis but owed much of it to powerful nomarchs. After 20 to 45 years, they were overthrown by a new line of pharaohs based in Herakleopolis Magna. Some time after these events, a rival line based at Thebes revolted against their nominal Northern overlords and united Upper Egypt. c. 2055 BC, Mentuhotep II, the son and successor of pharaoh Intef III defeated the Herakleopolitan pharaohs and reunited the Two Lands, thereby starting the Middle Kingdom.
The Seventh and Eighth Dynasties ruled for approximately 20–45 years. They comprise numerous ephemeral kings reigning from Memphis over a possibly divided Egypt and, in any case, holding only limited power owing to the effectively feudal system into which the administration had evolved. The list below is based on the Abydos King List dating to the reign of Seti I and taken from Jürgen von Beckerath's Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen[81] as well as from Kim Ryholt's latest reconstruction of the Turin canon, another king list dating to the Ramesside Era.[82] Numerals have been provided based on personal names.[83]
Ephemeral ruler of the Ninth Dynasty. Only known from two rock inscriptions in the Wadi Hammamat.[90][91][92][93][94][95] Correct chronological position unknown.
The Eleventh Dynasty originated from a group of Theban nomarchs serving kings of the 8th, 9th or 10th dynasty with roots in Upper Egypt that ruled from 2134 to 1991 BC.
Obscure pharaoh absent from later king lists, tomb unknown. Only attested in Lower Nubia, most likely a usurper at the end of the Eleventh Dynasty or early Twelfth Dynasty.
Obscure pharaoh absent from later king lists, tomb unknown. Only attested in Lower Nubia, most likely a usurper at the end of the Eleventh Dynasty or early Twelfth Dynasty.
Obscure pharaoh absent from later king lists, tomb unknown. Only attested in Lower Nubia, most likely a usurper at the end of the Eleventh Dynasty or early Twelfth Dynasty.
Amenemhat I was not from a royal family, and built the first substantial pyramid since Pepi II at Lisht.[104] He restored order in Egypt, and then built a new capital called Itjtawy. Amenemhat I was probably assassinated.[105]
Senusret I built extensively in upper Egypt, including the temple of Amun at Karnak.[104] Senusret I claimed to have sent 17,000 people into the Wadi Hammamat to bring back stone for 150 statues and 60 sphinxes.[108] He also constructed a pyramid at Lisht near his fathers pyramid.
Amenemhat II recorded his reign in now fragmented annals.[104] The Egyptian navy may have attacked Cyprus during his campaigns.[111] Amenemhat II also built a pyramid at Dashur. Ruled for at least 35 years.
Senusret III got rid of nomarchs and made 3 administrative districts.[117] He also led campaigns into Lower Nubia in his 8th, 10th, 16th, and 18th regnal years.[111] Senusret III also built his own pyramid at Dashur and was the most powerful and influential pharaoh of the 12th dynasty.
Amenemhat III further developed the Fayyum as an agricultural region.[104] He also constructed a large mortuary complex at Hawara including his pyramid, the mortuary complex was probably the labyrinth that inspired the ancient Greek authors.[120]
The first known archeologically attested female Pharaoh.
1807–1802 BC
The position of a possible additional ruler, Seankhibtawy Seankhibra, is unknown. He may be an ephemeral king, or a name variant of a king of the 12th or 13th Dynasty.
The Thirteenth Dynasty was much weaker than the Twelfth Dynasty, and was unable to hold onto the two lands of Egypt. Either at the start of the dynasty, c. 1805 BC or toward the middle of it in c. 1710 BC, the provincial ruling family in Xois, located in the marshes of the eastern Delta, broke away from the central authority to form the Canaanite Fourteenth Dynasty.
The Hyksos made their first appearance during the reign of Sobekhotep IV, and c. 1720 BC took control of the town of Avaris (the modern Tell el-Dab'a/Khata'na), conquering the kingdom of the 14th dynasty. Sometime around 1650 BC the Hyksos, perhaps led by Salitis the founder of the Fifteenth Dynasty, conquered Memphis, thereby terminating the 13th dynasty. The power vacuum in Upper Egypt resulting from the collapse of the 13th dynasty allowed the 16th dynasty to declare its independence in Thebes, only to be overrun by the Hyksos kings shortly thereafter.
Subsequently, as the Hyksos withdrew from Upper Egypt, the native Egyptian ruling house in Thebes set itself up as the Seventeenth Dynasty. This dynasty eventually drove the Hyksos back into Asia under Seqenenre Tao, Kamose and finally Ahmose, first pharaoh of the New Kingdom.
The Fourteenth Dynasty was a local group from the eastern Delta, based at Avaris,[128] that ruled from either 1805 BC or c. 1710 BC until c. 1650 BC.
Some of the contested rulers of the 14th Dynasty (proposed by Kim Ryholt) are commonly identified by Egyptologists as being of Canaanite (Semitic) descent, owing to the distinct origins of the names of some of their kings and princes. However, the dynasty rulers are not referred to as Hyksos in the Turin kings list.[129] It is here given according to Ryholt; however, this reconstruction of the dynasty is heavily debated with the position of the five kings preceding Nehesy highly disputed.
Chronological position, duration of reign and extend of rule unknown, here given according to Ryholt.[128] Alternatively, he could be an early Hyksos king, a Hyksos ruler of the second part of the 15th Dynasty or a vassal of the Hyksos.
The Fifteenth Dynasty arose from among the Hyksos people who emerged from the Fertile Crescent to establish a short-lived governance over much of the Nile region, and ruled from 1674 to 1535 BC.
Four attested kings may be tentatively attributed to the Abydos Dynasty, and they are given here without regard for their (unknown) chronological order:
The Sixteenth Dynasty was a native Theban dynasty emerging from the collapse of the Memphis-based 13th dynasty c. 1650 BC. They were finally conquered by the Hyksos 15th dynasty c. 1580 BC.
The Seventeenth Dynasty was based in Upper Egypt and ruled from 1580 to 1550 BC and comprised the family of rulers that would eventually overthrow the Hyksos and establish the 18th Dynasty and New Kingdom
Through military dominance abroad, the New Kingdom saw Egypt's greatest territorial extent. It expanded far into Nubia in the south, and held wide territories in the Near East. Egyptian armies fought with Hittite armies for control of modern-day Syria.
Three of the best known pharaohs of the New Kingdom are Akhenaten, also known as Amenhotep IV, whose exclusive worship of the Aten is often interpreted as the first instance of monotheism, Tutankhamun known for the discovery of his nearly intact tomb, and Ramesses II who attempted to recover the territories in modern Israel/Palestine, Lebanon and Syria that had been held in the Eighteenth Dynasty. His reconquest led to the Battle of Qadesh, where he led the Egyptian armies against the army of the Hittite king Muwatalli II.
Son of Ahmose I. Amenhotep I led campaigns in Nubia down to the 3rd Nile cataract.[144] He also introduced the practice of having the tomb and funerary temple in separate locations rather than in the same location.[145] It is possible that Amenhotep I and his mother Ahmose-Nefertari founded the tomb workers village of Deir-el-Medina, the two were honored as gods by later residents.[146]
The second known female ruler of Egypt. Ruled jointly with her nephew Thutmose III.[153] Famous for her expedition to Punt documented on her famous Mortuary Temple at Deir el-Bahari. Built many temples and monuments. Ruled during the height of Egypt's power. Was the daughter of Thutmose I and the Great Wife of her brother Thutmose II.
Son of Thutmose II. He ruled jointly with Hatshepsut, his aunt and step-mother, during the early part of his reign.[154] Famous for his territorial expansion into the Levant and Nubia. Under his reign, the Ancient Egyptian Empire was at its greatest extent. Ruled during the height of Egypt's Power. Before the end of his reign, he obliterated Hatshepsut's name and image from temples and monuments.
Father of Akhenaten and grandfather of Tutankhamun. Ruled Egypt at the height of its power. Built many temples and monuments, including his enormous Mortuary Temple. Was the son of Thutmose IV.
Married to Meritaten, daughter of Akhenaten. Identity and sex of Smenkhare is unknown, with suggestions they were either male relative of Akhenaten, or Queen Nefertiti, main wife of Akhenaten, who took ceremonial male identity as King. It's unknown if Smenkhkare ever was sole ruler, or if they died as co-regent of Akhenaten.[155]
Female pharaoh. Speculated to be former queen consort Neferneferuaten Nefertiti, because of name similarity. Often supposed to have been the same person as Smenkhkare, as they shared the same throne name; most scholars now see Neferneferuaten as ruling queen, while Smenkhkare was a male king.
Believed to be a son of Akhenaten.[159] He reinstated the polytheistic Ancient Egyptian religion. His name change from Tutankhaten to Tutankhamun reflects the change in religion from the monolatristicAtenism to the classic religion, of which Amun is a major deity. He is thought to have taken the throne at around age eight or nine and to have died around age eighteen or nineteen.
Was Grand Vizier to Tutankhamun and an important official during the reigns of Akhenaten and Smenkhkare. Possibly the brother of Tiye, Great Wife of Amenhotep III, and also possibly father of Nefertiti, Great Wife of Akhenaten. Believed to have been born into nobility, but not royalty. Succeeded Tutankhamun due to his lack of an heir.
Born a Commoner. Was a General during the Amarna Period. Obliterated Images of the Amarna Pharaohs and destroyed and vandalized buildings and monuments associated with them. Succeeded Ay despite Nakhtmin being the intended heir.
Continued expanding Egypt's territory until he reached a stalemate with the Hittite Empire at the Battle of Kadesh in 1275 BC, after which the famous Egyptian–Hittite peace treaty was signed in 1258 BC. Had one of the longest Egyptian reigns. Known for his large scale construction projects, including many now famous monuments.
Not related to Seti II, Siptah, or Tausret. May have usurped the throne from Tausret. Did not recognize Siptah or Tausret as legitimate rulers. Possibly a member of a minor line of the Ramesside royal family. Also called Setnakt.
The Third Intermediate Period (1069–664 BC) marked the end of the New Kingdom after the collapse of the Egyptian empire at the end of the Bronze Age. Two dynasties of Libyan origin ruled, giving this period its alternative name of the Libyan Period.
The Twenty-First Dynasty was based at Tanis and was a relatively weak group. Theoretically, they were rulers of all Egypt, but in practice their influence was limited to Lower Egypt. They ruled from 1069 to 943 BC.[169]
Son of Pinedjem I, a High Priest of Amun and Pharaoh. Ruled for 40 to 51 years. Famous for his intact tomb at Tanis. Known as "The Silver Pharaoh" due to the magnificent silver coffin he was buried in. One of the most powerful rulers of the Dynasty.
Previously believed to have governed before Piankh. Eventually adopted royal titulary at Thebes, thus becoming ruler in the South and alongside the Tanite pharaoh in the North.[172]
Son of Piankh and successor of Herihor. Father of Psusennes I. High Priest for many years, eventually gave his seat to his son Masaharta, and declared himself king.[173]
The designation Twenty-Third Dynasty is applied variously by scholars to branches of the Twenty-Second Dynasty ruling in mostly Upper Egypt (at least intermittently at Thebes), to various local rulers based at Herakleopolis, Hermopolis, Leontopolis, and to a line of kings who succeeded the Twenty-Second Dynasty at Tanis, all of Libyan origin.[175]
Nubians invaded Lower Egypt and took the throne of Egypt under Piye although they already controlled Thebes and Upper Egypt in the early years of Piye's reign. Piye's conquest of Lower Egypt established the Twenty-fifth Dynasty which ruled until 656 BC.[177]
King of Nubia; gave himself royal titles, an inscription from Elephantine proclaims him as King of Upper and Lower Egypt. Considered by some as the first ruler of 25th Dynasty.
He was the last great ruler of Egypt before the Persian conquest. According to the Greek historian Herodotus, he was of common origins. Father of Psamtik III.
Son of Amasis II. Ruled for about six months before being defeated by the Persians in the Battle of Pelusium and subsequently executed for attempting to revolt.
Egypt again came under the control of the Achaemenid Persians. After the practice of Manetho, the Persian rulers from 340 to 332 BC are occasionally designated as the Thirty-first Dynasty:
The second Hellenistic dynasty, the Ptolemies, ruled Egypt from 305 BC until Egypt became a province of Rome in 30 BC (whenever two dates overlap, that means there was a co-regency). The most famous member of this dynasty was Cleopatra VII, in modern times known simply as Cleopatra, who was successively the consort of Julius Caesar and, after Caesar's death, of Mark Antony, having children with both of them.
Cleopatra strove to create a dynastic and political union between Egypt and Rome, but the assassination of Caesar and the defeat of Mark Antony doomed her plans.[187]
Caesarion (Ptolemy XV Philopator Philometor Caesar) was the last king of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, and he reigned jointly with his mother Cleopatra VII of Egypt, from September 2, 47 BC. He was the eldest son of Cleopatra VII, and possibly the only son of Julius Caesar, after whom he was named. Between the death of Cleopatra, on August 12, 30 BC, up to his own death in late August 30 BC, he was nominally the sole pharaoh. Ultimately, he was killed on the orders of Octavian, who would become the Roman emperorAugustus. While younger children of Cleopatra did survive Egyptian-Roman war, Octavian denied them inheritance of Egypt.[188]
Prcolaimed co-regent by Ptolemy II. His status of co-regent was revoked sometime in 259 or 258 after Ptolemy revolted with Timarchus. He was allowed by Ptolemy II to govern the city of Telmessos from 258 until his death in 240 BC.
Traditionally identified with a surviving son of Ptolemy VI who existed but never ruled; the posthumous designation Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator was probably applied to Ptolemy Memphites (below)
Daughter of Ptolemy XII; forced to marry Seleucus Kybiosaktes, but had him strangled; later married Archelaos of Comana. Joint rule with Cleopatra VI until 57 BC.
Ruled jointly with her brother Ptolemy XIII, her brother Ptolemy XIV, and her son Ptolemy XV.[191] In modern usage, the stand-alone use of "Cleopatra" with no ordinal number usually refers to Cleopatra VII. Believed to have committed suicide.
Egyptian relief depicting the Roman Emperor Trajan (right, reigned 98–117 AD) in full pharaonic style.
Cleopatra VII had affairs with Roman dictator Julius Caesar and Roman general Mark Antony, but it was not until after her suicide (after Mark Antony was defeated by Octavian, who would later be Emperor Augustus Caesar) that Egypt became a province of the Roman Republic in 30 BC. Subsequent Roman emperors were accorded the title of pharaoh, although exclusively only while in Egypt.
The last Roman emperor to be conferred the title of pharaoh was Maximinus Daza (reigned 311–313 AD).[3][194]
12Clayton 1995, p. 217. "Although paying lip-service to the old ideas and religion, in varying degrees, pharaonic Egypt had in effect died with the last native pharaoh, Nectanebo II in 343 BC."
↑Tyldesley, Joyce (2009). Cleopatra: Last Queen of Egypt. Profile Books. pp.20–21. ISBN978-1-86197-901-8. The Ptolemies believed themselves to be a valid Egyptian dynasty, and devoted a great deal of time and money to demonstrating that they were the theological continuation of all the dynasties that had gone before. Cleopatra defined herself as an Egyptian queen, and drew on the iconography and cultural references of earlier queens to reinforce her position. Her people and her contemporaries accepted her as such.
12von Beckerath, Jürgen (1999). Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen. Verlag Philipp von Zabern. pp.266–267. ISBN978-3-422-00832-8.
↑Baker, Darrell D. (2008). Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs Volume 1: Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300-1069 BC. Egypt: The American University in Cairo Press. p.298. ISBN978-977-416-221-3.
12Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN3-491-96053-3, p. 259.
↑Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN3-491-96053-3, p. 139.
↑Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN3-491-96053-3, p. 199.
↑Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN3-491-96053-3, p. 138.
↑Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN3-491-96053-3, p. 181.
↑Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN3-491-96053-3, p. 311.
12Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN3-491-96053-3, p. 137.
↑Baker, Darrell D. (2008). Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs Volume 1: Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300-1069 BC. Egypt: The American University in Cairo Press. p.3. ISBN978-977-416-221-3.
↑Baker, Darrell D. (2008). Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs Volume 1: Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300-1069 BC. Egypt: The American University in Cairo Press. p.288. ISBN978-977-416-221-3.
↑Wilke, Matthias (2015-04-22), "Emanuel Hirsch (1888 –1972) – "Jene zwei Göttinger Stiftsinspektorenjahre haben die Liebe zu Göttingen für immer in mir erweckt […] Aber […]", Stiftsgeschichte(n), Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, pp.187–196, doi:10.13109/9783666570377.187, ISBN978-3-525-57037-1
↑Baker, Darrell D. (2008). Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs Volume 1: Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300-1069 BC. Egypt: The American University in Cairo Press. p.104. ISBN978-977-416-221-3.
↑Felde, Rolf: Gottheiten, Pharaonen und Beamte im alten Ägypten, Norderstedt 2017, S. 125.
↑Baker, Darrell D. (2008). Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs Volume 1: Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300-1069 BC. Egypt: The American University in Cairo Press. p.5. ISBN978-977-416-221-3.
1234Barry Kemp (a1), Andrew Boyce and James Harrell, The Colossi from the Early Shrine at Coptos in Egypt, in: Cambridge Archaeological Journal Volume 10, Issue 2 April 2000, 233
↑Ludwig David Morenz: Bild-Buchstaben und symbolische Zeichen. Die Herausbildung der Schrift der hohen Kultur Altägyptens (= Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis 205). Fribourg 2004, ISBN3-7278-1486-1, p. 91.
↑Günter Dreyer (1992). "Horus Krokodil, ein Gegenkönig der Dynastie 0". In Renee Friedman; Barbara Adams (eds.). The Followers of Horus, Studies dedicated to Michael Allen Hoffman, 1949–1990. Egyptian Studies Association Publication. Vol. 2. Bloomington, IN: Oxbow Publications. pp. 259–263. ISBN0946897441.
↑Günter Dreyer: Horus Krokodil, ein Gegenkönig der Dynastie 0. In: Renee Friedman and Barbara Adams (Hrsg.): The Followers of Horus, Studies dedicated to Michael Allen Hoffman, 1949–1990 (= Egyptian Studies Association Publication, vol. 2). Oxbow Publications, Bloomington (IN) 1992, ISBN0-946897-44-1, p. 259–263.
↑Wilkinson, Toby A. H. (2001). Early dynastic Egypt (1. paperbacked.). London: Routledge. ISBN978-0-415-26011-4.
↑P. Tallet, D. Laisnay: Iry-Hor et Narmer au Sud-Sinaï (Ouadi 'Ameyra), un complément à la chronologie des expéditios minière égyptiene. In: Bulletin de L'Institute Français D'Archéologie Orientale (BIFAO) 112. Ausgabe 2012, S. 381–395.
↑Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen (= Münchner ägyptologische Studien, vol. 49. von Zabern, Mainz 1999, ISBN3-8053-2591-6, p. 36–37.
↑Hannig, Rainer (2006). Großes Handwörterbuch Ägyptisch-Deutsch: (2800–950 v. Chr.): die Sprache der Pharaonen. Kulturgeschichte der antiken Welt (in German). Vol. 64. Mainz: Philip von Zabern. ISBN978-3-80-531771-9.
↑Toby Wilkinson: Early Dynastic Egypt: Strategy, Society and Security. Routeledge, London 1999, ISBN0-415-18633-1, p. 38, 56 & 57.
↑Stewart, John (2006). African States and Rulers (Thirded.). London: McFarland. p.77. ISBN0-7864-2562-8.
12Elizabeth BLOXAM; Wouter CLAES; Tiphaine DACHY; Maude EHRENFELD; Ashraf EL-SENUSSI; Chloé GIRARDI; James HARRELL; Thomas C. HEAGY; Stan HENDRICKX; Christiane HOCHSTRASSER-PETIT; Dirk HUYGE; Clara JEUTHE; Adel KELANY; Christian KNOBLAUCH; Béatrix MIDANT-REYNES; Norah MOLONEY; Aurélie ROCHE; Adel TOHAMEY (January 2014). "Who Was Menes?"(PDF). Archéo nil. 24: 59–92. doi:10.3406/arnil.2014.1071. S2CID248280047. Retrieved 24 September 2022.
↑Toby A.H. Wilkinson (1999). Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge. p.67. ISBN0-415-26011-6.
↑Hayes, Michael (1970), "Chapter VI.Chronology, I. Egypt to the end of the Twentieth Dynasty", in Edwards, I.E.S.; Gadd, C.J. (eds.), The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume I, Part I, Cambridge
↑Baker, Darrell D. (2008). Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs Volume 1: Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300-1069 BC. Egypt: The American University in Cairo Press. p.7. ISBN978-977-416-221-3.
12Toby A.H. Wilkinson (1999). Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge. p.71. ISBN0-415-26011-6.
↑Baker, Darrell D. (2008). Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs Volume 1: Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300-1069 BC. Egypt: The American University in Cairo Press. p.92. ISBN978-977-416-221-3.
↑Wolfgang Helck: Untersuchungen zur Thinitenzeit (= Ägyptologische Abhandlungen (ÄA), Vol. 45). Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1987, ISBN3-447-02677-4, p. 124.
↑Baker, Darrell D. (2008). Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs Volume 1: Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300-1069 BC. Egypt: The American University in Cairo Press. p.95. ISBN978-977-416-221-3.
↑Toby A.H. Wilkinson (1999). Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge. p.73. ISBN0-415-26011-6.
↑Baker, Darrell D. (2008). Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs Volume 1: Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300-1069 BC. Egypt: The American University in Cairo Press. p.78. ISBN978-977-416-221-3.
12Toby A.H. Wilkinson (1999). Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge. p.75. ISBN0-415-26011-6.
↑Toby A.H. Wilkinson (1999). Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge. p.77. ISBN0-415-26011-6.
↑Baker, Darrell D. (2008). Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs Volume 1: Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300-1069 BC. Egypt: The American University in Cairo Press. p.55. ISBN978-977-416-221-3.
↑Nicolas-Christophe Grimal: A History of Ancient Egypt. Blackwell, Oxford UK / Cambridge USA 1992, ISBN978-0-631-19396-8, p. 53.
↑Baker, Darrell D. (2008). Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs Volume 1: Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300-1069 BC. Egypt: The American University in Cairo Press. p.376. ISBN978-977-416-221-3.
↑Toby A.H. Wilkinson (1999). Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge. p.79. ISBN0-415-26011-6.
↑Baker, Darrell D. (2008). Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs Volume 1: Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300-1069 BC. Egypt: The American University in Cairo Press. p.299. ISBN978-977-416-221-3.
123Toby A.H. Wilkinson (1999). Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge. p.83. ISBN0-415-26011-6.
↑Dietrich Wildung: Die Rolle ägyptischer Könige im Bewußtsein ihrer Nachwelt. Teil I. Posthume Quellen über die Könige der ersten vier Dynastien. In: Münchener Ägyptologische Studien, vol. 17. Deutscher Kunstverlag, Munich/Berlin 1969, p. 31–33.
↑Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN3-491-96053-3, pp. 278–279.
↑Miroslav Verner (2000): "Who was Shepseskara, and when did he reign?", in: Miroslav Bárta, Jaromír Krejčí (editors): Abusir and Saqqara in the Year 2000, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Oriental Institute, Prague, ISBN80-85425-39-4, p. 581–602, available onlineArchived 2011-02-01 at the Wayback Machine .
↑Kim Ryholt: "The Late Old Kingdom in the Turin King-list and the Identity of Nitocris", Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde, 127, 2000, p. 99
↑Gustave Jéquier, Maṣlaḥat al-Āthār (1993): Les pyramides des reines Neit et Apouit (in French), Cairo: Institut français d'archéologie orientale, OCLC 195690029, see plate 5.
↑Percy Newberry (1943): "Queen Nitocris of the Sixth Dynasty", in: The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, vol. 29, pp=51–54
↑Gae Callender: "Queen Neit-ikrety/Nitokris", in: Miroslav Barta, Filip Coppens, Jaromic Krecji (editors): Abusir and Saqqara in the year 2010/1, Prague: Czech Institute of Egyptology, Faculty of Arts, Charles University, 2011, ISBN978-80-7308-384-7, see pp. 249–250
↑Baker, Darrell (2008). The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs. Predynastic to the Twentieth Century: 3300-1069 BCE. Vol.1. Stacey International. p.133. ISBN978-1-905299-37-9.
↑Labib Habachi: King Nebhepetre Menthuhotep: his monuments, place in history, deification and unusual representations in form of gods, in: Annales du Service des Antiquités de l'Égypte 19 (1963), pp. 16–52
↑Baker, Darrell D. (2008). Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs Volume 1: Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300-1069 BC. Egypt: The American University in Cairo Press. p.20. ISBN978-977-416-221-3.
1234Marc Van De Mieroop (2021). A History of Ancient Egypt. Wiley Blackwell. p.98. ISBN978-1-119-62087-7.
↑Marc Van De Mieroop (2021). A History of Ancient Egypt. Wiley Blackwell. p.99. ISBN978-1-119-62087-7.
↑Baker, Darrell D. (2008). Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs Volume 1: Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300-1069 BC. Egypt: The American University in Cairo Press. p.391. ISBN978-977-416-221-3.
↑Marc Van De Mieroop (2021). A History of Ancient Egypt. Wiley Blackwell. pp.112–113. ISBN978-1-119-62087-7.
↑Baker, Darrell D. (2008). Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs Volume 1: Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300-1069 BC. Egypt: The American University in Cairo Press. p.24. ISBN978-977-416-221-3.
12Marc Van De Mieroop (2021). A History of Ancient Egypt. Wiley Blackwell. p.109. ISBN978-1-119-62087-7.
↑Baker, Darrell D. (2008). Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs Volume 1: Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300-1069 BC. Egypt: The American University in Cairo Press. p.395. ISBN978-977-416-221-3.
↑Marc Van De Mieroop (2021). A History of Ancient Egypt. Wiley Blackwell. p.100. ISBN978-1-119-62087-7.
↑Josef Wegner, The Nature and Chronology of the Senwosret III–Amenemhat III Regnal Succession: Some Considerations based on new evidence from the Mortuary Temple of Senwosret III at Abydos, JNES 55, Vol.4, (1996), pp.251
↑Baker, Darrell D. (2008). Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs Volume 1: Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300-1069 BC. Egypt: The American University in Cairo Press. p.398. ISBN978-977-416-221-3.
↑Marc Van De Mieroop (2021). A History of Ancient Egypt. Wiley Blackwell. p.104. ISBN978-1-119-62087-7.
↑Baker, Darrell D. (2008). Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs Volume 1: Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300-1069 BC. Egypt: The American University in Cairo Press. p.26. ISBN978-977-416-221-3.
↑Baker, Darrell D. (2008). Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs Volume 1: Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300-1069 BC. Egypt: The American University in Cairo Press. p.30. ISBN978-977-416-221-3.
↑Baker, Darrell D. (2008). Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs Volume 1: Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300-1069 BC. Egypt: The American University in Cairo Press. p.456. ISBN978-977-416-221-3.
12Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen, Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN3-491-96053-3
↑Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen, Albatros, 2002
1234567891011121314K.S.B. Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800–1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997
↑Baker, Darrell D. (2008). Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs Volume 1: Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300-1069 BC. Egypt: The American University in Cairo Press. p.12. ISBN978-977-416-221-3.
12Baker, Darrell D. (2008). Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs Volume 1: Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300-1069 BC. Egypt: The American University in Cairo Press. p.4. ISBN978-977-416-221-3.
↑Detlef Franke: "Zur Chronologie des Mittleren Reiches. Teil II: Die sogenannte Zweite Zwischenzeit Altägyptens", In Orientalia 57 (1988), p. 259
↑Ryholt, K. S. B. (1997). The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period, C. 1800–1550 B.C. Museum Tusculanum Press. p.164. ISBN978-87-7289-421-8.
12Jürgen von Beckerath: Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der Zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten, Glückstadt, 1964
1234Jürgen von Beckerath: Chronologie des pharaonischen Ägyptens, Münchner Ägyptologische Studien 46. Mainz am Rhein, 1997
↑Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, Münchner ägyptologische Studien 49, Mainz 1999.
12Marcel Marée: A sculpture workshop at Abydos from the late Sixteenth or early Seventeenth Dynasty, in: Marcel Marée (editor): The Second Intermediate period (Thirteenth-Seventeenth Dynasties), Current Research, Future Prospects, Leuven, Paris, Walpole, Massachusetts. 2010 ISBN978-90-429-2228-0. p. 247, 268
↑Baker, Darrell D. (2008). Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs Volume 1: Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300-1069 BC. Egypt: The American University in Cairo Press. p.111. ISBN978-977-416-221-3.
↑Wolfgang Helck, Eberhard Otto, Wolfhart Westendorf, Stele – Zypresse: Volume 6 of Lexikon der Ägyptologie, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 1986, Page 1383
↑Nadig, Peter (2016). Hatszepsut (in Polish). Prószyński i S-ka. p. 85. ISBN 978-83-8069-417-0
123Kara Cooney. Hatszepsut. Kobieta, która została królem [The Woman Who Would be King] (in Polish). WAB. 2016. p. 8 ISBN 978-83-280-2771-8
1234Marc Van De Mieroop (2021). A History of Ancient Egypt. Wiley Blackwell. p.146. ISBN978-1-119-62087-7.
↑Marc Van De Mieroop (2021). A History of Ancient Egypt. Wiley Blackwell. p.168. ISBN978-1-119-62087-7.
↑Marc Van De Mieroop (2021). A History of Ancient Egypt. Wiley Blackwell. p.169. ISBN978-1-119-62087-7.
↑Nadig, Peter (2016). Hatszepsut (in Polish). Prószyński i S-ka. p. 88. ISBN 978-83-8069-417-0
↑Cooney, Kara (2018). When Women Ruled the World: Six Queens of Egypt. National Geographic. pp.103–104. ISBN978-1-4262-1977-1.
↑Nadig, Peter (2016). Hatszepsut (in Polish). Prószyński i S-ka. p. 89. ISBN 978-83-8069-417-0
↑He is recognized as king by Ronald Leprohon in The Great Name: Ancient Egyptian Royal Titulary (2013). Society of Biblical Literature. p. 137, by Aiden Dodson & Dyan Hilton in The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt (2004). Thames & Hudson. pp. 198, 200–201. ISBN0-500-05128-3, and by Payraudeau 2020, pp. 63–67. However, he is not viewed as such by Chris Naunton in Searching for the Lost Tombs of Egypt (2018). Thames & Hudson. pp. 201–202. ISBN978-0-500-05199-3, nor by Nicholas Grimal in Dzieje starożytnego Egiptu [Histoire de l'Egypte ancienne] (in Polish) (2nd ed.) (2004). PIW. pp. 322, 323. ISBN83-06-02917-8.
12Grimal, Nicholas (2004). Dzieje starożytnego Egiptu [Histoire de l'Egypte ancienne] (in Polish) (2nded.). PIW. pp.322–323. ISBN83-06-02917-8.
↑Tyldesley, Joyce. Cleopatra: Last Queen of Egypt. Profile Books. 2009. pp. 145-146. ISBN978-1861979018
↑Tyldesley, Joyce (2009). Cleopatra: Last Queen of Egypt. Profile Books. p.22. ISBN978-1-86197-901-8. Cleopatra's 'reign' is in fact a succession of co-regencies with her brother Ptolemy XIII (51-47), her brother Ptolemy XIV (47-44) and her son Ptolemy XV Caesar (44-30).
↑Tyldesley, Joyce (2009). Cleopatra: Last Queen of Egypt. Profile Books. p.59. ISBN978-1-86197-901-8.
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