Universal Service Fund

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The Universal Service Fund (USF) is a system of telecommunications subsidies and fees managed by the United States Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to promote universal access to telecommunications services in the United States. The FCC established the fund in 1997 in compliance with the Telecommunications Act of 1996. Originally designed to subsidize telephone service, since 2011 the fund has expanded its goals to supporting broadband universal service. [1] The Universal Service Fund's budget ranges from $5–8 billion per year depending on the needs of the telecommunications providers. These needs include the cost to maintain the hardware needed for their services and the services themselves. In 2022 disbursements totaled $7.4 billion, split across the USF's four main programs: $2.1 billion for the E-rate program, $4.2 billion for the high-cost program, $0.6 billion for the Lifeline program, and $0.5 billion for the rural health care program. [USAC 1] : 4 

Contents

Unlike many government programs which are funded by general Congressional appropriations, the Universal Service Fund is instead funded by a specific fee on United States telephone providers. While separate itemization is not required by the FCC, it is common for USF fees to be listed separately from other charges on a consumer's bill. [2] As of 2024, the rate for the USF budget was 34.4% of a telecom company's interstate and international end-user revenues. [FCC 1]

The structure and funding of the USF has been subject to significant criticism and proposed reforms. One issue is a declining revenue base: consumers' spending on the interstate telephone service that funds the USF has been falling for many years. [3] Some have challenged the constitutionality of having USF fees set without congressional approval and the delegation of authority to the private USAC. [4] One suggestion is to ask additional companies pay into the USF such internet service providers [5] or large technology companies. [6]

Background

In the modern sense of offering service to all people, the promotion of universal service in telecommunications began in the 1960s. There is a popular myth that the earlier Communications Act of 1934 was aimed at promoting universal service based on the language of its preamble, but this reading differs significantly from how the law was interpreted at the time. [7] [8]

Implicit subsidies for local service (1970-1996)

In the 1960s the telecommunication monopolies were shocked by new evolving technologies and competitions: new long-distance carriers and microwave networks were authorized. With falling costs on long-distance service, regulators decided to reallocate the increasing profit on long-distance telecommunication to fund subsidies to make local telephone connection more affordable. [9] This process began in the mid 1960 and was institutionalized through the Ozark plan of 1970 into action. At the time of the institutionalization telephone penetration ranged between 85 and 95%. [7] [10]

Legally, jurisdiction to regulate rates was split between the Federal Communications Comision (international and interstate) and state commissions (intrastate) commissions. During the 91st congress, Fred B. Rooney introduced H.R. 12150 in create a joint board between the Federal Communications Commission and the National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners to clearly deliniate how telephone regulation was separated by jurisdiction. The joint board met on a voluntary basis and authored the Ozark plan. The situation was then formalized when the bill was reintroduced in the next congress as H.R. 7048 The Federal-State Commissions Joint Board Act and passed into law in 1971. [11] [12] [13]

There was a push for deregulating the telecommunications industry in the 1980s. Under President Ronald Reagan, the FCC shifted its focus from "social equity to an economic efficiency objective," which it claimed was a primary purpose of the Communications Act of 1934. [14] After AT&T was split up in 1984, universal service was still "supported by a system of above-cost access charges paid to local exchange companies." This system was administered by the National Exchange Carrier Association.

History

Telecommunications Act of 1996

The Universal Service Fund was first codified in the Telecommunications Act of 1996, the first major rewrite of the Communications Act of 1934. The act addresses new challenges and opportunities of the digital information age, with the goal of promoting an economic environment conducive for the growth of new information technology. It also further developed the meaning and implementation of universal service. The act calls for the creation of a joint federal-state board to make recommendations to the FCC on defining federal universal services and set time tables. The act also set out immediate priorities of universal service. These include quality and reasonably priced services, access to advanced telecommunication services, access for rural, low-income and high-cost regions, equitable and nondiscriminatory service, specific and predictable price structure, access of advanced telecommunication services for schools and health care and libraries (Sec. 254(b)(1)-(7)). The act provided ability in the constantly changing telecommunication environment to periodically revisit and adjust universal service, while setting core principles (Sec. 254(c)). The 1996 act also "mandated the creation of the universal service fund (USF) into which all telecommunications providers are required to contribute a percentage of their interstate and international end-user telecommunications revenues". [15]

Increased competition and universal service were legislatively addressed and codified with the Telecommunications Act of 1996. [15] The major goals of Universal Service as mandated by the 1996 Act are as follows:

  • Promote the availability of quality services at just, reasonable and affordable rates for all consumers
  • Increase nationwide access to advanced telecommunications services
  • Advance the availability of such services to all consumers, including those in low income, rural, insular, and high cost areas, at rates that are reasonably comparable to those charged in urban areas
  • Increase access to telecommunications and advanced services in schools, libraries and rural health care facilities
  • Provide equitable and non-discriminatory contributions from all providers of telecommunications services to the fund supporting universal service programs
    — Federal Communications Commission, Universal Service

The 1996 Act states that all providers of telecommunications services should contribute to federal universal service in an equitable and nondiscriminatory manner; there should be specific, predictable, and sufficient Federal and State mechanisms to preserve and advance universal service; all schools, classrooms, health care providers, and libraries should, generally, have access to advanced telecommunications services; and finally, that the Federal-State Joint Board and the FCC should determine those other principles that, consistent with the 1996 Act, are necessary to protect the public interest. [FCC 2]

In the past, only long-distance companies made contributions to support the federal Universal Service Fund.[ clarification needed ] The Telecommunications Act of 1996 expanded the types of companies contributing to the Universal Service Fund.

Expansion to Voice over IP services

In June 2006, the FCC voted to require providers of VoIP services to contribute to the Universal Service Fund the same way traditional telephone services had been contributing. [16]

After the 2018 USF changes, VoIP service providers are now required to provide funds for the USF. However, they are exempt from the cost of using the Internet for information transport whereas DSL internet providers and modern cable services must burden the cost. This expands cost distortion to long-distance telephone providers and it raises the cost of telecommunications service for more consumers. [17]

Expansion of the fund into broadband

The concept of universal service may include other telecommunications-information services, mainly Internet access.

Many of the services covered by the USF are related to traditional telephone technology. There is a rising concern that more recent developments in telecommunications are just as important to the consumer as these older technologies. For example, consumers' subscriptions to traditional telephone services have fallen while their subscription rate to wireless services have been rising consistently. Yet many cellular companies are likely to receive less funding under the new rules, which may reduce consumers' access to wireless services in areas of the country that have low populations. Similarly, a question currently debated is whether access to broadband internet should be supported by the USF and if so, how best to fulfill such a large mandate without damaging the stability of the fund. The Telecommunications Act of 1996 states that "advanced services" should be accessible to all Americans [Section 254(b)(3)]. One question is whether the providers of internet access should contribute to the fund like other companies that provide access to telecommunications, if such providers also want to draw from the fund. Supporters of including internet access in the Universal Service Fund include former Congressman Rick Boucher (D-VA) [18]

Adding additional services to the fund has corporate support from major telecommunication companies, including Verizon and AT&T. In March 2009, senior executives from Verizon Communications met with the House Subcommittee on Communications, Technology, and the Internet, providing recommendations for how best to proceed bringing broadband and mobile communication access to rural and unserved areas. Citing reform to the Universal Service Fund as a means "to better serve rural America," Verizon recommended that a limit be set on the size of USF's high-cost fund, competitive bidding wars be employed to determine which company expand service to unserved areas, structure a "wire-center approach" model to replace statewide cost averaging, restructure how contributions to the USF are determined, and impose a deadline on the FCC for completion of their reform of inter-carrier compensation.[ citation needed ]

On the other hand, discussions continued over whether the USF should be used to provide services such as broadband internet access. [19] Plans to subsidize internet service providers has led to backlash from traditional telecommunications carriers. Traditional carriers argue that “the relevant provisions of the 1996 Act do not give the FCC carte blanche to play regulatory Robin Hood with their universal service contributions.” [8]

In October 2011 the FCC formally proposed a "Connect America Fund" to address these and other concerns. [20] Reform finally arrived on October 27, 2011, when the FCC approved a six-year transfer process that would transition money from the Universal Service Fund to a new $4.5 billion a year Connect America Fund that will support the expansion of broadband services to areas that don't have broadband access yet. [21] [FCC 3]

In May 2018, the FCC moved $8 billion from a private bank to the US Treasury. This anticipated move caused an uproar from FCC Democratic commissioners who were concerned about the money being allocated to large corporations instead of the citizens. FCC commissioner, Jessica Rosenworcel stated that this move "sacrificed $50 million in annual interest that could have been used to support rural broadband, telemedicine & internet in schools." [22] Although lawmakers and commissioners claimed that this move was unexpected, there was a letter previously written to the General Accountability Office (GAO) in January 2018 asking for a review on the plan to review the funds. The GAO claimed that the USF funds are not regulated as intensively as other government funds, so this move was an attempt to "improve management and oversight of the funds." [22]

On May 21, 2018, the FCC issued an order that prohibited USF programs from buying equipment from Chinese telecommunications companies Huawei and ZTE. These companies are considered a risk to national security by American intelligence agencies. National Economic Council Director Larry Kudlow commented that the Trump Administration are ¨aware of security issues, sanctions issues, technology theft issues, et cetera.¨ [23]

Components

High Cost (Connect America Fund)

The largest and most complex of the four programs, the high cost program subsidizes telecommunications services in rural and remote areas which are more expensive to connect to networks. The program paid out $4.2 billion in subsidies to telecommunications companies in 2022, [USAC 1] : 20  with a goal of making telecommunications affordable to rural and remote areas. The program has been criticized as wasteful, granting large sums of money to telecommunications companies while having little effect on access. [24]

As part of the National Broadband Plan proposed in March 2010, the FCC proposed reorganizing the High Cost program into a new "Connect America Fund", which will include both voice and 4 Mbit/s internet connectivity. [25] On October 27, 2011, the FCC approved a six-year transfer process that would transition the money from the Universal Service Fund High-Cost Program into the new $4.5 billion a year Connect America Fund, effectively putting an end to the USF High-Cost Fund by 2018. [21] [FCC 3] [FCC 4]

In 2012, during "Phase I" of the Connect America Fund, $115 million in subsidies were given out to build out broadband in 37 states, with $71.9 million going to Frontier Communications and $35 million to Century Link, with AT&T and Verizon declining to participate. [26] In 2013, also during "Phase I", CenturyLink accepted another $54 million, [27] and AT&T accepted $100 million. [28]

In March 2014, the FCC approved "Phase II" of the transition to the Connect America Fund, adding $1.8 billion a year in funding, [29] and clarifying the specifics of the funding process. Under the framework the FCC approved, incumbent carriers have priority access to subsidies, but if the funds are declined, the funds are allocated by a competitive bidding process. The FCC also proposed upping the minimum speed requirement from 4 Mbit/s to 10 Mbit/s. [30] In May 2014, the 10th circuit court of appeals upheld the shift in funds in the face of a legal challenge by telephone companies. [31] [32]

The Connect America Fund also includes the Mobility Fund, which is given to wireless carriers who expand service to underserved areas. "Phase I" of the Mobility Fund offered $300 million for a September 2012 round of auctions, and "Phase II" of the Mobility Fund plans to give out $500 million in annual support. [33]

In March 2016, the FCC unanimously voted to provide $20 billion over the next 10 years in "support for small carriers." The previous FCC chairman Tom Wheeler under the Obama Administration implemented this reform. The FCC will be offering the fund $20 billion over the next 10 years to support service in "high cost areas." This reform is a modernization of the program support of broadband in "high cost areas." It will target communities that most need support. The reform is made up of three main elements: "Modernizes Existing Universal Service Program for Rate-of-Return Carriers", "Create Two Paths to a 'Connect America Fund' for Rate-of Return Carriers" and "Increase Fiscal Responsibility in the Universal Service Fund." [FCC 5]

In 2017, new FCC chairman under the Trump Administration, Ajit Varadaraj Pai, plans to keep rural areas a priority. He wants to bridge "the digital divide between rural and urban areas" by working on "expanding broadband options". Pai believes that there is waste occurring between the private and public sectors as private capital is already being given to areas in order to build out networks. However, some of these areas are still being subsidized. Pai intends to make sure that broadband accessibility is included in an infrastructure bill to come. [34]

Low income (Lifeline)

Since 1985, the Lifeline program has provided subsidies to low-income people pay for phone service; first landlines, then cellphones, and as of 2016 it also offers the option of Internet connectivity. [35] It provides a subsidy of up to $9.25 a month for Americans below 135% of the poverty line. [FCC 6] Residents of Native American Indian and Alaska Native tribal communities may qualify for enhanced Lifeline assistance (up to an additional $25.00). The Lifeline program is limited to one discount per household. A "household" includes anyone living at the same address "who share income(s) and household expenses". [USAC 2]

The Lifeline program has been subject to scrutiny and debate over the scope of the program. Issues include instituting checks for income eligibility and duplicate applications, whether the program should support broadband, whether the program should have a budget cap.

Rural health care

The Rural Health Care Support program "provides funding to eligible health care providers (HCPs) for telecommunications and broadband services necessary for the provision of health care." [FCC 7]

The rural health care program provides subsidies to health care providers for telehealth and telemedicine services, typically by a combination of video-conferencing infrastructure and high speed Internet access, to enable doctors and patients in rural hospitals to access specialists in distant cities at affordable rates. The Rural Health Care Support Mechanism allows rural health care providers to pay rates for telecommunications services similar to those of their urban counterparts, making telehealth services affordable. Over $417 million has been allocated for the construction of 62 statewide or regional broadband telehealth networks in 42 states and three U.S. territories under the Rural Health Care Pilot Program. [36] In 2022, the rural health care program paid out $488 million. [USAC 1] : 20 

There are three components of the Rural Health Care Program: Telecommunications Program, HCF Program, Pilot Program. [USAC 3]

"The Telecommunications Program (formerly known as the Primary Program) provides discounts for telecommunications services for eligible health care providers (HCPs)." [USAC 3]

"The Healthcare Connect Fund (HCF) Program is the newest component of the Rural Health Care Program. The HCF Program will provide a 65 percent discount on eligible expenses related to broadband connectivity to both individual rural health care providers (HCPs) and consortia, which can include non-rural HCPs (if the consortium has a majority of rural sites)." [USAC 3]

"The Pilot Program provides funding for up to 85 percent of eligible costs of the construction or implementation of statewide and/or regional broadband networks. There are 50 active projects involving hundreds of health care providers (HCPs)." [USAC 3]

Schools and Libraries Program (E-Rate)

The E-Rate program "provides telecommunication services (e.g., local and long-distance calling, both fixed and mobile, high-speed data transmission lines), Internet access, and internal connections to eligible schools and libraries." [FCC 7]

The E-Rate program provides subsidies for Internet access and general telecommunications services to schools and libraries. The subsidies typically pay 20% to 90% of costs based on need, [37] with rural and low-income schools receiving the greatest subsidy. In 2022, the E-Rate program paid out $2.1 billion. [USAC 1] Every year since 2010, the Wireline Competition Bureau announces the funding cap for the E-Rate program to adhere to the current needs of schools and libraries telecommunications. [FCC 8]

"The Eligible Services List (ESL) for each funding year provides guidance on the eligibility of products and services under the Schools and Libraries Program." In 2015, USAC outlined two specific categories for grouping the ESL, and one category for miscellaneous services.

Starting in the 2011 funding year, the different types of schools eligible to receive benefits now include:

Administration

Universal Service Administrative Company

The logo of the Universal Service Administrative Company Universal Service Administrative Company logo.gif
The logo of the Universal Service Administrative Company

Following the Telecommunications Act of 1996 and the subsequent creation of the Universal Service Fund, the FCC designated the independent American nonprofit corporation named the "Universal Service Administrative Company" to manage the contribution of revenue to and distribution of funding from the Universal Service Fund. The Schools and Libraries Corporation and the Rural Health Care Corporation were merged into the USAC on January 1, 1999. [38] The USAC is a fully owned legal subsidiary of the National Exchange Carrier Association, [USAC 6] but is governed by a separate 20-person board of directors serving 3 year terms representing various stakeholder interests. [39] [USAC 7]

USAC reports quarterly revenue projections detailing what contributions are expected and detailing what actions are taken in the expansion and bolstering of universal service. The USAC receives contributions from all companies providing interstate and international telephone and Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) service. Contributors send payments based on projected quarterly earnings. The FCC does not require companies to charge their customers for these contributions – this funding decision is left up to the individual companies. [USAC 8] This revenue is deposited into a central fund, from which the USAC distributes money to the four central services at the core of the USF: High Cost, Low Income, Schools and Libraries, and Rural Health Care.

"The USAC collects revenue data from USF contributors on the FCC Form 499-A (Annual Telecommunications Reporting Worksheet) and FCC Form 499-Q (Quarterly Telecommunications Reporting Worksheet)." [USAC 9] The USAC is responsible for estimating how much money is needed for the USF program. The USAC provides a "demand filing," to the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) each quarter in its FCC Filings. [USAC 9]

While the USAC cannot act without Congressional approval, it can make recommendations. USAC recommendations have resulted in expanding telecommunication resources, particularly broadband Internet and mobile access to schools and libraries, and recognizing VoIP as a form of interstate and international communication, which requires those companies providing VoIP services to contribute to the USF. [USAC 10]

Federal Communications Commission

The FCC oversees the USAC's administration of the Universal Service Fund, and institutes reforms as it sees fit. Although the fund is limited by the scope of US law, (mainly the 1996 Telecommunications Act) the FCC has played a part in making several changes to the fund, including shifting funds from the high cost program towards broadband expansion. Under the FCC, there is an Enforcement Bureau that investigates and pursues the violators of the Act of 1996 and any Commissions rules. [FCC 9]

Funding

Currently, all telecommunications companies that provide service between states, including long-distance companies, local telephone companies, wireless telephone companies, paging companies, and payphone providers, are legally required to contribute to the federal Universal Service Fund. [40] Carriers providing international services also must contribute to the Universal Service Fund. These providers contribute to the fund "based on their interstate and international end-user telecommunications revenues." On a quarterly basis, the Universal Service Administrative Company submits projected demand for Universal Service funding and projected contribution base to the Federal Communications Commission Office of Managing Director (OMD). There is then a 14-day public review, after which the rate is finalized. [41] As of the third quarter of 2024, telecommunication companies were required to contribute 34.4% of their interstate revenue to the fund. [FCC 1]

While many providers bundle phone calls within a state (intrastate), calls between states (interstate), and calls to between countries (international) into a single monthly fee, the USF fee does not apply to revenue generated from calls within a single state. Therefore, phone companies apply the USF fee only to the interstate and international revenue. To accomplish this, they can opt to apply the USF fee to the "safe-harbor percentage" of assumed interstate revenue (64.9% for VoIP, 37.1% for cellular service). [USAC 11] Alternatively, companies can conduct a traffic study demonstrating the percentage of interstate usage (PIU) and submit it to the Universal Service Administrative Company.

While not required to do so, most telephone companies bill their customers with a separate line item for the USF fee. The contributions are collected by the Universal Service Administrative Company and disbursed towards four programs that the federal USF supports, as directed by the FCC. [FCC 10] Universal Service charges should not be confused with what are sometimes referred to in telephone company bills as "Federal Subscriber Line" charges, which are access fees charged by telecommunications companies, not the local or federal government.

Universal Service Fund quarterly collections (millions) [FCC 11]
Schools and librariesRural Health CareHigh CostLow incomeContribution factor
Q4 200037336601525.7%
Q4 200152246991176.9%
Q4 200255298411849.3%
Q4 200354278151829.2%
Q4 200439198452128.9%
Q4 20055301188920210.2%
Q4 2006481139221719.1%
Q4 200750528110222211.0%
Q4 200855152111720011.4%
Q4 20095535097128812.3%
Q4 201055217108831212.9%
Q4 201156022107953215.3%
Q4 201257833112466417.4%
Q4 201358258110840615.6%
Q4 201459560112038116.1%
Q4 201561075111032616.7%
Q4 2016403152113639217.4%
Q4 2017499108114629018.8%
Q4 2018392188119927920.1%
Q4 2019422148136425025.0%
Q4 2020553151124924427.1%
Q4 2021594153113723129.1%
Q4 20226090108521128.9%
Q4 202365297106726334.5%

Declining revenues

The rapidly changing interstate and international telecommunications markets can quickly and unpredictably bring about changes in USF funding levels. Dorothy Attwood of the FCC Wireline Competition Bureau stated, "One striking development that we've witnessed in the interstate marketplace is the steady decline of interstate revenues. Although traditional long-distance revenues grew consistently between 1984 and 1997, they're now in a period of steady decline". She pointed out that competition in the interstate long-distance market, wireless substitution, and bundling of service packages that blur traditional service categories are all reducing revenues that serve to finance the USF. [42] Service providers simply transferred the cost to customers in the form of a long-distance surcharge to make up for reduced revenue. While the expenditures of the USF have increased since its inception, in part due to expansion of support paid to competitive providers, the revenues on which contributions are made – interstate and international telecommunications revenues – have become increasingly more difficult for contributors to identify as a result of evolution of services offered. Overall revenues reported by telecommunications companies have steadily increased, if information service revenues are included. However, the revenues for these services are no longer subject to contribution.

Some have raised concerns about the future funding of the USF; despite falling taxable revenues, the size of the fund has increased from $1.2 billion in collections at 5.7% in 4Q 2000, to $2.2 billion in 4Q 2014 at 16.1%.

State universal service funds

A Tax Foundation summary of total Taxes and Fees paid on wireless service in each state as of July 2016. FUCF Taxes, Fees, and Government Charges on Wireless Service, July 2016.pdf
A Tax Foundation summary of total Taxes and Fees paid on wireless service in each state as of July 2016.

Many US States have their own universal service funds, with budget and administration independent of the much larger federal fund. States with their own programs may have their own eligibility guidelines. As of 2019, 42 states had universal service funds in addition to the federal program, totaling $1.7 billion in disbursements in 2017. Those without state funds consisted of Alabama, Delaware, Florida, Hawaii, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New Hampshire, Tennessee, and Virginia. [43]

To support the state programs, many states impose a fee on intrasate calling revenue (the portion not falling under the federal USF fee). [44]

Controversy

Wide disagreement over the nature and administration of the USF exists in telecommunications policy circles. [45] Such disagreements fragment traditional partisan alliances in the United States Congress. Fears continue to abound about what such subsidies mean, and how it will affect telecommunications in the long run. [46] Critics of the USF programs argue that there are many macro-level problems which are caused by the ¨systematic design problems that have significant adverse impact on consumers and the carriers providing service.¨ [17]

Waste and fraud

The issue of waste and fraud, as with many government programs, has been addressed as well. Gilroy stated, "The ability to ensure that only eligible services are funded, that funding is disbursed at the proper level of discount, that alleged services have been received, and the integrity of the competitive bidding process is upheld have been questioned". Improved auditing of particularly the E-rate program has been addressed. [47]

There have been multiple cases of waste and fraud throughout disbursement of subsidies from the Universal Service Fund. There is some concern on the lag time between application, approval, and actual receipt of funds. [48] In terms of fraud, some school officials have been bribed by contractors working with corporations so that they use subsidies to purchase computer equipment from said corporation. [48] In addition, some beneficiaries inaccurately report costs to inflate their subsidies amount. In terms of waste, some equipment subsidized by the USF has been left unused for several years. [48]

An investigation into potential fraud in 2004 revealed that contractors working with Hewlett-Packard bribed school officials. Hewlett-Packard wanted the schools to use subsidies provided by the fund to purchase computer equipment from Hewlett-Packard. The second example of fraud was when "Sandwich Isles Communication purposely inflated and inaccurately reported money to receive inflated subsidies." [49]

Critics continue to raise concerns in regards to the wastefulness of the fund. For example, "$5 million worth of equipment purchased by Chicago public schools with E-rate funds was left unused in a warehouse for years." Lastly, a problem that has plagued the program is the long lag time between the overall application of the programs and the approval. [48]

The USF has some issues in dealing with insufficient controls over determining who qualifies for funding, and limited auditing practices that are supposed to ensure that telecommunication companies are not overpaying or underpaying their dues to the fund. [22]

The USF is able to reward those living in rural or impoverished areas who are capable of paying the entire cost of personal telecommunication services. Critics argue that inconsistent and asymmetrical audits allow for wealthy consumers to avoid triggering some USF financial burdens. [50] Wealthy landowners in rural estates decide to utilize USF subsidies and pay a fraction of what they can realistically afford. [51]

Critics note that reimbursing carriers on a “‘cost-plus’ basis” creates “incentives to increase rather than decreas[e] costs” By reimbursing “carriers for the full cost of infrastructure development plus 11.25 percent of those costs in profit,” the fund may expose itself to exploitation. [52]

Proposed changes

Debate over the Universal Service Fund has consistently involved the scope of the funding, which technology types and companies should fund the program, which groups should be eligible for benefits, and the need to clean up waste and fraud in the program.

Legislative bills

Changes to funding

Proposals have been made to increase the number of sources from which universal service fund is collected. This could include expanding contributions to include intrastate telephone services (calls within single states), information services such as broadband, and increasing contribution requirements from wireless communication providers. Some believe that reclassifying broadband Internet access services under Title II of the 1996 Telecommunications Act would be followed by requiring ISPs to pay into the USF as a new source of revenue for the fund. [54] The FCC has made clear that the change does give it the power to do so, but will not require contributions on broadband Internet access revenues at this time, [55] as the FCC will forbear from the contribution requirements in Section 254(d) of the Communications Act. [FCC 12]

Alternatively, there have also been suggestions to move all funding to regular congressional appropriations. [56] [57]

Court challenges

Because ISP's and traditional telecommunications carriers often provide similar services, the USF may “violate[] the pro-competitive precepts of the 1996 Act." [8] These concerns and others, as well as longstanding opposition to the Universal Service Fund from government watchdogs and fiscal conservatives, inspired litigation in 2023 arguing that the fund violates the U.S. Constitution. [58] The Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals first ruled in Consumers’ Research v. Federal Communications Commission that the fund is constitutional, but that ruling has been appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court. In the mean time, the Fifth Circuit has ruled that it is unconstitutional. [59] [4]

See also

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Broadband mapping in the United States</span>

Broadband mapping in the United States are efforts to describe geographically how Internet access service from telephone and cable TV companies is available in terms of available speed and price. Mapping has been done on the national as well as the state level. The efforts are seen as preliminary steps towards broadband universal service.

Network convergence refers to the provision of telephone, video and data communication services within a single network. In other words, one company provides services for all forms of communication. Network convergence is primarily driven by development of technology and demand. Users are able to access a wider range of services, choose among more service providers. On the other hand, convergence allows service providers to adopt new business models, offer innovative services, and enter new markets.

Broadband universal service, also known as universal service obligation (USO) or universal broadband service, refers to government efforts to ensure all citizens have access to the internet. Universal voice service obligations have been expanded to include broadband service obligations in Switzerland, Finland, Spain and the UK.

NTCA - The Rural Broadband Association (NTCA) is a membership association with the goal of improving communications services in rural America. With a membership comprising over 850 independent rural American telecommunications companies in 46 states, NTCA provides training and employee benefit packages to its members. It also advocates rural issues to legislatures, including universal service, rural infrastructure, cybersecurity, telemedicine, and consumer protection.

Lifeline is the Federal Communications Commission's program, established in 1985, intended to make communications services more affordable for low-income consumers. Lifeline provides subscribers a discount on monthly telephone service purchased from participating providers in the marketplace. Subscribers can also purchase discounted broadband internet from participating providers. The Lifeline program is funded by telephone fees as part of the Universal Service Fund.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Affordable Connectivity Program</span> United States government-sponsored program

The Affordable Connectivity Program (ACP) was a United States government-sponsored program that provided internet access to low-income households. Several companies signed on to participate in the program, including Verizon Communications, Frontier Communications, T-Mobile, Spectrum, Cox, AT&T, Xfinity, Optimum and Comcast. The program was administered by the Federal Communications Commission. The Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act provided $14.2 billion in funding for $30 subsidies for those with low incomes, and $75 subsidies on tribal lands. As of June 2024, the program has ended.

<i>Consumers Research v. Federal Communications Commission</i> Court case

Consumers' Research v. Federal Communications Commission, No. 21-3886 (2023), was a court ruling at the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit, on a challenge by consumer advocates against the Federal Communications Commission's Universal Service Fund program. The ruling was one of several at various American courts brought by the same litigants; the Sixth Circuit was the first to rule that the funding program does not violate the United States Constitution.

References

  1. ↑ Manda, Haarika (August 4, 2024). The Efficacy of the Connect America Fund in Addressing US Internet Access Inequities. Proceedings of the ACM SIGCOMM 2024 Conference. p. 484-505. arXiv: 2405.18657 . doi: 10.1145/3651890.3672272 .
  2. ↑ "Understanding Your Telephone Bill". New Hampshire Office of Consumer Advocate. Archived from the original on November 10, 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  3. ↑ "The Future of the Universal Service Fund and Related Broadband Program". Congressional Research Service. March 1, 2024. p. 9. Retrieved September 7, 2024.
  4. 1 2 Brodkin, Jon (July 25, 2024). "5th Circuit court upends FCC Universal Service Fund, ruling it an illegal tax". Ars Technica. Retrieved September 7, 2024.
  5. ↑ Brodkin, Jon (April 8, 2024). "FCC chair rejects call to impose Universal Service fees on broadband". Ars Technica. Retrieved September 7, 2024.
  6. ↑ Brodkin, Jon (June 10, 2024). "ISPs ask FCC for tax on Big Tech to fund broadband networks and discounts". Ars Technica. Retrieved September 7, 2024.
  7. 1 2 Mueller, Milton (1997). "Universal service and the telecommunications act: myth made law" (PDF). Communications of the ACM. 40 (3): 39–47. doi:10.1145/245108.245119. ISSN   0001-0782. Archived from the original on November 11, 2017.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  8. 1 2 3 Foley, Sean M. (1998). "The Brewing Controversy over Internet Service Providers and the Universal Service Fund: A Third Generation Interpretation of Section 254". CommLaw Conspectus. 6 (2): 245–259. Retrieved September 13, 2024.
  9. ↑ Peter Bluhm (January 2011). "Fundamentals of Telecommunications Regulation: Markets, Jurisdiction, and Challenges". National Regulatory Research Institute. p. 46. Retrieved September 15, 2024.
  10. ↑ Cole, Barry G. (1991). "5 Pricing of Telephone Services". After the Breakup (PDF). New York: Columbia University Press. p. 188. ISBN   978-0-231-07322-6.
  11. ↑ "HEARING BEFORE THE SUBCOMMITTEE ON COMMUNICATIONS AND POWER on HR 7048 (92nd Congress)" (PDF). June 29, 1971. Retrieved September 15, 2024.
  12. ↑ Pub. L. Tooltip Public Law (United States)  92–131
  13. ↑ 47 U.S.C.   § 410
  14. ↑ Aufderheide, Patricia (January 15, 1999). Communications Policy and the Public Interest. New York: Guilford Press. ISBN   978-1-57230-425-3.
  15. 1 2 Jayakar, K. (2009). Universal Service. In Schejter, Amit (2009). ...And Communications for All: A policy agenda for a new administration. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books. ISBN   978-0-7391-2919-7. OCLC   269282085.
  16. ↑ Anne Broache (June 21, 2006). "FCC approves new Internet phone taxes". CNET. Archived from the original on November 11, 2011. Retrieved September 8, 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  17. 1 2 Frieden, Rob (July 30, 2012). "Killing with Kindness: Fatal Flaws in the $5.7 Billion Universal Service Funding Mission and What Should Be Done to Narrow the Digital Divide". SSRN   2119666.
  18. ↑ Boucher, Rick (March 12, 2009). "USF: Reforming the High Cost Funds" (PDF). Subcommittee on Communication, Technology and the Internet. Archived from the original on June 25, 2009.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  19. ↑ Fitchard, Kevin (September 2008). "Broadband for all". Telephony. p. 6–8. ISSN   0040-2656. Archived from the original on July 24, 2012.{{cite magazine}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  20. ↑ details Universal Service Fund switch to broadband Electronista, Oct 9, 2011.[ permanent dead link ]
  21. 1 2 Gross, Grant (October 27, 2011). "FCC Votes to End Telephone Subsidies, Shift to Broadband". PC World. Retrieved November 9, 2011.
  22. 1 2 3 McCarthy, Kieren (May 4, 2018). "FCC shifts its $8bn pot of gold, sparks fears of corporate money grab". The Register. Retrieved May 30, 2018.
  23. ↑ Feinberg, Andrew (May 21, 2018). "ZTE Not Part of China Trade Talks, Will Not be Let off 'Scot-Free' if Export Ban is Lifted, Kudlow Says". Broadband Breakfast. Archived from the original on June 10, 2018.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  24. ↑ Bob Porterfield (January 14, 2007). "Cell Phone Subsidies Enrich Telecoms". Washington Post. Retrieved November 12, 2014.
  25. ↑ Nate Anderson (March 16, 2010). "National Broadband Plan arrives, quoting Shakespeare". Ars Technica. Retrieved November 23, 2014.
  26. ↑ John Eggerton (July 26, 2012). "AT&T, Verizon Say No Thanks to Broadband Rollout Funds". Business of Broadcasting Television and Cable. Retrieved November 23, 2014.
  27. ↑ Sean Buckley (August 20, 2013). "CenturyLink takes $54M in CAF funds to expand rural broadband reach". Firece Telecom. Archived from the original on August 24, 2013.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  28. ↑ Sean Buckley (August 20, 2013). "AT&T accepts $100M from FCC's Connect America Fund to expand rural broadband". Fierce Telecom. Archived from the original on August 26, 2013.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  29. ↑ Grant Gross (April 23, 2014). "FCC adds $9 billion to broadband subsidy fund". PC World. Retrieved December 29, 2014.
  30. ↑ John Eggerton (March 23, 2014). "FCC Approves Framework for Phase II of CAF". Multi Channel News. Retrieved November 23, 2014.
  31. ↑ staff (May 25, 2014). "FCC rural broadband initiative back on track after court appeal". Electronista. Archived from the original on May 26, 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  32. ↑ Sean Buckley (May 27, 2014). "FCC's Connect America Fund upheld by appeals court". Fierce Telecom. Archived from the original on August 5, 2014.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  33. ↑ Phil Goldstein (September 27, 2012). "FCC kicks off $300M Mobility Fund auction for rural mobile broadband". Fierce Wireless. Archived from the original on October 4, 2012.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  34. ↑ Breland, Ali (February 2, 2017). "Lawmakers push FCC chief to boost rural broadband". The Hill.
  35. ↑ Selyukh, Alina (March 31, 2016). "FCC Votes To Propose New Privacy Rules For Internet Service Providers". NPR. Retrieved September 14, 2024.
  36. ↑ "Rural Health Care Program". Iowa Utilities Board. Archived from the original on February 26, 2012. Retrieved February 26, 2012.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  37. ↑ "What is E-Rate". Funds for Learning. Retrieved November 20, 2014.
  38. ↑ Staff (January 1, 1999). "SLC becomes part of Universal Service Administrative Co". eSchool News. Archived from the original on November 29, 2014. Retrieved November 20, 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  39. ↑ 47 CFR 54.703
  40. ↑ 47 CFR 54.706
  41. ↑ United States Government Accountability Office (July 2024). "Report to the Ranking Member, Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation, U.S. Senate" (PDF). Retrieved September 11, 2024.
  42. ↑ 107th Congress, US Senate Subcommittee on Communications (June 19, 2002). "The Future of Universal Service: Ensuring the Sufficiency and Stability of the Fund". US Government Printing Office. Retrieved November 22, 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  43. ↑ Sherry Lichtenberg (February 2019). "State Universal Service Funds: Updating the Numbers". National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners . Retrieved September 8, 2024.
  44. ↑ Scott Mackey; Adam Hoffer (November 2, 2023). "Excise Taxes and Fees on Wireless Services Drop Slightly in 2023". Tax Foundation. Retrieved September 8, 2024.
  45. ↑ Jonathan S. Marashlian; Jacqueline R. Hankins & Linda McReynolds (2011). "The Mis-Administration and Misadventures of the Universal Service Fund" (PDF). CommLaw Conspectus. 19: 343-393. Archived from the original on April 24, 2012.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  46. ↑ Peres, Kenneth (2007). "Subverting the Public Interest: Deregulation in the Telecommunications Industry". New Labor Forum. 16 (1). Sage Publications, Inc.: 86–94. ISSN   1095-7960. JSTOR   40342672 . Retrieved September 14, 2024.
  47. ↑ Gilroy, Angele (August 1, 2007). "Universal service fund: Background and options for reform" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. Archived from the original on August 5, 2009.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) CS1 maint: year (link)
  48. 1 2 3 4 Nicosia, Mareesa. "Faster Internet at School: What's Next for $4 Billion E-rate Fund Under New FCC Chief Ajit Pai?". The 74. Retrieved September 13, 2024.
  49. ↑ Mcauliffe, Katie (February 14, 2017). "Fraud still plagues the FCC's Universal Service Fund". The Hill. Retrieved September 13, 2024.
  50. ↑ Collins, Angela F. (March 27, 2014). "Regulation on the Horizon: Are Regulators Poised to Address the Status of IP Telephony?". CommLaw Conspectus. 11 (1): 19–44. Retrieved May 30, 2018.
  51. ↑ Freiden, Robert M. (1997). "Dialing for Dollars: Should the FCC Regulate Internet Telephony?". Rutgers Computer & Technology Law Journal. Archived from the original on March 30, 2019.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  52. ↑ Rosen, Jeffrey (2011). "Universal Service Fund Reform: Expanding Broadband Internet Access in the United States" (PDF). Issues in Technology Innovation. Vol. 8. Center For Technology Innovation at Brookings. pp. 1–17.
  53. ↑ Rick Boucher (July 22, 2010). "Boucher, Terry Introduce Universal Service Reform Act of 2010". Archived from the original on August 4, 2010. Retrieved November 20, 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  54. ↑ Simmons, Jamal & Mendoza, Rosa (November 20, 2014). "Title II is wrong way to keep an open Internet". The Hill. Retrieved November 20, 2014.
  55. ↑ Senator Maria Cantwell (February 27, 2015). "Opponents of net neutrality already threatening lawsuits to derail progress". Seattle Times. Retrieved March 1, 2015.
  56. ↑ Hearn, Ted (March 12, 2024). "Cruz Wants Congressional Appropriations to Fund Universal Service". Broadband Breakfast. Retrieved September 9, 2024.
  57. ↑ Rosston, Gregory L.; Wallsten, Scott (August 29, 2024). "Overhauling the Universal Service Fund: Aligning Policy with Economic Reality". The Technology Policy Institute. Retrieved September 9, 2024.
  58. ↑ Umanah, Ufonobong (June 20, 2023). "Tough Path for Challenge to FCC Broadband Fee Revenue". Bloomberg Law. Retrieved January 18, 2024.
  59. ↑ Umanah, Ufonobong (July 24, 2024). "FCC Broadband Subsidy Scheme Unconstitutional, Court Says". Bloomberg Law. Retrieved July 24, 2024.

Federal Communications Commission

  1. 1 2 "OMD announces 3Q USF contribution factor is 34.4 percent". Federal Communications Commission. June 12, 2024. Retrieved September 6, 2024.
  2. ↑ Federal Communications Commission. (2009). Universal Service section. Retrieved July 16, 2009 from http://www.fcc.gov/wcb/tapd/universal_service/
  3. 1 2 "Connect America Fund & Intercarrier Compensation Reform Order and FNPRM Executive Summary" (PDF). Federal Communications Commission. Archived from the original on November 11, 2011. Retrieved November 9, 2011.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  4. ↑ "Connect America Fund (CAF)". Federal Communications Commission. April 25, 2012.
  5. ↑ "FCC Moves to Expand Rural Broadband Deployment by Modernizing and Reforming Universal Service Support for Small Carriers". Federal Communications Commission. March 30, 2016.
  6. ↑ "Lifeline Support for Affordable Communications". Federal Communications Commission. August 28, 2024. Retrieved September 8, 2024.
  7. 1 2 "Federal Communications Commission". Federal Communications Commission.
  8. ↑ Federal Communications Commission (May 6, 2016). "Wireline Competition Bureau Announces E-Rate Inflation-Based Cap For Funding" (PDF). Federal Communications Commission. Retrieved May 6, 2016.
  9. ↑ "Universal Service Fund Enforcement". Federal Communications Commission. June 28, 2011. Retrieved May 23, 2016.
  10. ↑ "Universal Service Support Mechanisms". Federal Communications Commissions. February 9, 2017.
  11. ↑ "Contribution Factor & Quarterly Filings - Universal Service Fund (USF) Management Support". Federal Communications Commission. Retrieved September 8, 2024.
  12. ↑ FCC (February 4, 2015). "Fact Sheet: Chairman Wheeler Proposes New Rules for Protecting the Open Internet" (PDF). FCC. Retrieved March 1, 2015.

Universal Service Administrative Company

  1. 1 2 3 4 "USAC 2022 annual report" (PDF). Retrieved September 7, 2024.
  2. ↑ "Am I Eligible? – Lifeline Support Program". www.lifelinesupport.org. Retrieved May 23, 2016.
  3. 1 2 3 4 "Rural Health Care Program". www.usac.org. Retrieved May 23, 2016.
  4. ↑ "Eligible Services List – Schools and Libraries Program". www.usac.org. Retrieved May 23, 2016.
  5. ↑ "Before You Begin: Applicants – Schools and Libraries Program". www.usac.org. Archived from the original on May 27, 2016. Retrieved May 23, 2016.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  6. ↑ "USAC and the Universal Service Fund Overview" (PDF). September 2009. Retrieved September 8, 2024.
  7. ↑ "Board of Directors". Universal Service Administrative Company. August 1, 2024. Retrieved September 11, 2024.
  8. ↑ "Who must contribute". Universal Service Administrative Company. February 12, 2008. Archived from the original on June 27, 2009. Retrieved July 20, 2009.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  9. 1 2 Universal Service Administrative Co. "Universal Service Funding – About USAC". www.usac.org. Archived from the original on August 25, 2018. Retrieved May 30, 2018.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  10. ↑ "Federal Universal Service Support Mechanisms Quarterly Contribution Base for the First Quarter 2009" (PDF). Universal Service Administrative Company. Archived from the original on March 31, 2010.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  11. ↑ USAC. "488/499 Spotlight Newsletter" (PDF). Retrieved September 8, 2024.
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