Wound licking

Last updated

A gorilla licking a wound Gorilla licking wound.jpg
A gorilla licking a wound

Wound licking is an instinctive response in humans and many other animals to cover an injury or second degree burn [1] with saliva. Dogs, cats, small rodents, horses, and primates all lick wounds. [2] Saliva contains tissue factor which promotes the blood clotting mechanism. The enzyme lysozyme is found in many tissues and is known to attack the cell walls of many gram-positive bacteria, aiding in defense against infection. Tears are also beneficial to wounds due to the lysozyme enzyme. However, there are also infection risks due to bacteria in the mouth.

Contents

Mechanism

A dog licking a wounded paw Dog licking wound.jpg
A dog licking a wounded paw

Oral mucosa heals faster than skin, [3] suggesting that saliva may have properties that aid wound healing. Saliva contains cell-derived tissue factor, and many compounds that are antibacterial or promote healing. Salivary tissue factor, associated with microvesicles shed from cells in the mouth, promotes wound healing through the extrinsic blood coagulation cascade. [4] [5] [6] The enzymes lysozyme and peroxidase, [7] defensins, [8] cystatins and an antibody, IgA, [9] are all antibacterial. Thrombospondin and some other components are antiviral. [10] [11] A protease inhibitor, secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor, is present in saliva and is both antibacterial and antiviral, and a promoter of wound healing. [12] [13] Nitrates that are naturally found in saliva break down into nitric oxide on contact with skin, which will inhibit bacterial growth. [14] Saliva contains growth factors [15] such as epidermal growth factor, [16] VEGF, [17] TGF-β1, [18] leptin, [19] [20] IGF-I, [21] [22] lysophosphatidic acid, [23] [24] hyaluronan [25] and NGF, [26] [27] [28] which all promote healing, although levels of EGF and NGF in humans are much lower than those in rats. In humans, histatins may play a larger role. [29] [30] As well as being growth factors, IGF-I and TGF-α induce antimicrobial peptides. [31] Saliva also contains an analgesic, opiorphin. [32] Licking will also tend to debride the wound and remove gross contamination from the affected area. In a recent study, scientists have confirmed through several experiments that the protein responsible for healing properties in human saliva is, in fact, histatin. Scientists are now looking for ways to make use of this information in ways that can lead to chronic wounds, burns, and injuries being healed by saliva. [33]

In animals

A cat with an Elizabethan collar Cat with Elizabethan collar.jpg
A cat with an Elizabethan collar
Lick granuloma from excessive licking Canine lick granuloma.jpg
Lick granuloma from excessive licking

It has been long observed that the licking of their wounds by dogs might be beneficial. Indeed, a dog's saliva is bactericidal against the bacteria Escherichia coli and Streptococcus canis , although not against coagulase-positive Staphylococcus or Pseudomonas aeruginosa . [34] Wound licking is also important in other animals. Removal of the salivary glands of mice [35] and rats slows wound healing, and communal licking of wounds among rodents accelerates wound healing. [36] [37] Communal licking is common in several primate species. In macaques, hair surrounding a wound and any dirt is removed, and the wound is licked, healing without infection. [38]

Risks

Wound licking is beneficial but too much licking can be harmful. An Elizabethan collar may be used on pet animals to prevent them from biting an injury or excessively licking it, which can cause a lick granuloma. These lesions are often infected by pathogenic bacteria such as Staphylococcus intermedius. [39] Horses that lick wounds may become infected by a stomach parasite, Habronema , a type of nematode worm. The rabies virus may be transmitted between animals, such as the kudu antelopes by wound licking of wounds with residual infectious saliva. [40]

In humans

Religion and legend

There are many legends involving healing wounds by licking them or applying saliva. Saint Magdalena de Pazzi is said to have cured a nun of sores and scabs in 1589 by licking her limbs. [41] The Roman Emperor Vespasian is said to have performed a healing of a blind man using his saliva. [42] Pliny the Elder in his Natural History reported that a fasting woman's saliva is an effective cure for bloodshot eyes. [43]

In the Hebrew Bible saliva is associated with uncleanliness. However, in the Gospels, there are three different incidents in which Jesus uses saliva to cure (Mark 7:33, Mark 8:23, John 9:6). Köstenberger suggests "by using saliva to cure a man, Jesus claims to possess unusual spiritual authority." [44]

Risks

There are potential health hazards in wound licking due to infection risk, especially in immunocompromised patients. Human saliva contains a wide variety of bacteria that are harmless in the mouth, but that may cause significant infection if introduced into a wound. A notable case was a diabetic man who licked his bleeding thumb following a minor bicycle accident, and subsequently had to have the thumb amputated after it became infected with Eikenella corrodens from his saliva. [45]

Licking of people's wounds by animals

History and legend

Dog saliva has been said by many cultures to have curative powers in people. [46] [47] "Langue de chien, langue de médecin" is a French saying meaning "A dog's tongue is a doctor's tongue", and a Latin quote that "Lingua canis dum lingit vulnus curat" or "A dog's saliva can heal your wound" appears in a thirteenth-century manuscript. [48] In Ancient Greece, dogs at the shrine of Aesculapius were trained to lick patients, and snake saliva was also applied to wounds. [49] Saint Roch in the Middle Ages was said to have been cured of a plague of sores by licking from his dog. [50] The Assyrian Queen Semiramis is supposed to have attempted to resurrect the slain Armenian king Ara the Beautiful by having the dog god Aralez lick his wounds. [51] In the Scottish Highlands in the nineteenth century, dog saliva was believed to be effective for treating wounds and sores. [52] In the Gospel of Luke (16:19-31), Lazarus the Beggar's sores are licked by dogs, although no curative effects are reported by the Evangelist.[ citation needed ]

Risks

As with the licking of wounds by people, wound licking by animals carries a risk of infection. Allowing pet cats to lick open wounds can cause cellulitis [53] [54] and sepsis [55] [56] due to bacterial infections. Licking of open wounds by dogs could transmit rabies if the dog is infected with rabies, [57] although this is said by the CDC to be rare. [58] Dog saliva has been reported to complicate the healing of ulcers. [59] Another issue is the possibility of an allergy to proteins in the saliva of pets, such as Fel d 1 in cat allergy and Can f 1 in dog allergy. [60] Cases of serious infection following the licking of wounds by pets include:

Idiomatic use

To "lick your wounds" means to "withdraw temporarily while recovering from a defeat" [72]

The phrase was spoken by Antony in John Dryden's seventeenth century play All for Love : [73]

They look on us at distance, and, like curs
Scaped from the lion's paws, they bay far off
And lick their wounds, and faintly threaten war.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Saliva</span> Bodily fluid secreted by salivary glands

Saliva is an extracellular fluid produced and secreted by salivary glands in the mouth. In humans, saliva is around 99% water, plus electrolytes, mucus, white blood cells, epithelial cells, enzymes, and antimicrobial agents.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Salivary gland</span> Exocrine glands that produce saliva through a system of ducts

The salivary glands in many vertebrates including mammals are exocrine glands that produce saliva through a system of ducts. Humans have three paired major salivary glands, as well as hundreds of minor salivary glands. Salivary glands can be classified as serous, mucous, or seromucous (mixed).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pasteurellosis</span> Medical condition

Pasteurellosis is an infection with a species of the bacterial genus Pasteurella, which is found in humans and other animals.

<i>Bordetella bronchiseptica</i> Species of bacterium

Bordetella bronchiseptica is a small, gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium of the genus Bordetella. It can cause infectious bronchitis in dogs and other animals, but rarely infects humans. Closely related to B. pertussis—the obligate human pathogen that causes pertussis ; B. bronchiseptica can persist in the environment for extended periods.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Licking</span> Action of passing the tongue over a surface

Licking is the action of passing the tongue over a surface, typically either to deposit saliva onto the surface, or to collect liquid, food or minerals onto the tongue for ingestion, or to communicate with other animals. Many animals both groom themselves, eat or drink by licking.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eschar</span> Piece of dead tissue caused by some skin injuries

An eschar is a slough or piece of dead tissue that is cast off from the surface of the skin, particularly after a burn injury, but also seen in gangrene, ulcer, fungal infections, necrotizing spider bite wounds, tick bites associated with spotted fevers and exposure to cutaneous anthrax. The term ‘eschar’ is not interchangeable with ‘scab’. An eschar contains necrotic tissue whereas a scab is composed of dried blood and exudate.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Epidermal growth factor</span> Protein that stimulates cell division and differentiation

Epidermal growth factor (EGF) is a protein that stimulates cell growth and differentiation by binding to its receptor, EGFR. Human EGF is 6-kDa and has 53 amino acid residues and three intramolecular disulfide bonds.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Animal bite</span> Wound or puncture caused by animal teeth

An animal bite is a wound, usually a puncture or laceration, caused by the teeth. An animal bite usually results in a break in the skin but also includes contusions from the excessive pressure on body tissue from the bite. The contusions can occur without a break in the skin. Bites can be provoked or unprovoked. Other bite attacks may be apparently unprovoked. Biting is a physical action not only describing an attack but it is a normal response in an animal as it eats, carries objects, softens and prepares food for its young, removes ectoparasites from its body surface, removes plant seeds attached to its fur or hair, scratching itself, and grooming other animals. Animal bites often result in serious infections and mortality. Animal bites not only include injuries from the teeth of reptiles, mammals, but fish, and amphibians. Arthropods can also bite and leave injuries.

Dental plaque is a biofilm of microorganisms that grows on surfaces within the mouth. It is a sticky colorless deposit at first, but when it forms tartar, it is often brown or pale yellow. It is commonly found between the teeth, on the front of teeth, behind teeth, on chewing surfaces, along the gumline (supragingival), or below the gumline cervical margins (subgingival). Dental plaque is also known as microbial plaque, oral biofilm, dental biofilm, dental plaque biofilm or bacterial plaque biofilm. Bacterial plaque is one of the major causes for dental decay and gum disease.

<i>Pasteurella</i> Genus of bacteria

Pasteurella is a genus of Gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic bacteria. Pasteurella species are nonmotile and pleomorphic, and often exhibit bipolar staining. Most species are catalase- and oxidase-positive. The genus is named after the French chemist and microbiologist, Louis Pasteur, who first identified the bacteria now known as Pasteurella multocida as the agent of chicken cholera.

<i>Pasteurella multocida</i> Species of bacterium

Pasteurella multocida is a Gram-negative, nonmotile, penicillin-sensitive coccobacillus of the family Pasteurellaceae. Strains of the species are currently classified into five serogroups based on capsular composition and 16 somatic serovars (1–16). P. multocida is the cause of a range of diseases in mammals and birds, including fowl cholera in poultry, atrophic rhinitis in pigs, and bovine hemorrhagic septicemia in cattle and buffalo. It can also cause a zoonotic infection in humans, which typically is a result of bites or scratches from domestic pets. Many mammals and birds harbor it as part of their normal respiratory microbiota.

Capnocytophaga canimorsus is a fastidious, slow-growing, Gram-negative rod of the genus Capnocytophaga. It is a commensal bacterium in the normal gingival flora of canine and feline species, but can cause illness in humans. Transmission may occur through bites, licks, or even close proximity with animals. C. canimorsus generally has low virulence in healthy individuals, but has been observed to cause severe, even grave, illness in persons with pre-existing conditions. The pathogenesis of C. canimorsus is still largely unknown, but increased clinical diagnoses have fostered an interest in the bacillus. Treatment with antibiotics is effective in most cases, but the most important yet basic diagnostic tool available to clinicians remains the knowledge of recent exposure to canines or felines.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">FGF10</span> Protein-coding gene in humans

Fibroblast growth factor 10 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the FGF10 gene.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Histatin 3</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

Histatin 3, also known as HTN3, is a protein which in humans is encoded by the HTN3 gene.

Histatins are histidine-rich (cationic) antimicrobial proteins found in saliva. Histatin's involvement in antimicrobial activities makes histatin part of the innate immune system.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Saliva testing</span>

Saliva testing or Salivaomics is a diagnostic technique that involves laboratory analysis of saliva to identify markers of endocrine, immunologic, inflammatory, infectious, and other types of conditions. Saliva is a useful biological fluid for assaying steroid hormones such as cortisol, genetic material like RNA, proteins such as enzymes and antibodies, and a variety of other substances, including natural metabolites, including saliva nitrite, a biomarker for nitric oxide status. Saliva testing is used to screen for or diagnose numerous conditions and disease states, including Cushing's disease, anovulation, HIV, cancer, parasites, hypogonadism, and allergies. Salivary testing has even been used by the U.S. government to assess circadian rhythm shifts in astronauts before flight and to evaluate hormonal profiles of soldiers undergoing military survival training.

Pasteurella canis is a Gram-negative, nonmotile, penicillin-sensitive coccobacillus of the family Pasteurellaceae. Bacteria from this family cause zoonotic infections in humans, which manifest themselves as skin or soft-tissue infections after an animal bite. It has been known to cause serious disease in immunocompromised patients.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Animal attack</span> Violent attacks caused by non-human animals against humans

Animal attacks are violent attacks caused by non-human animals against humans, one of the most common being bites. These attacks are a cause of human injuries and fatalities worldwide. According to the 2012 U.S. Pet Ownership & Demographics Sourcebook, 56% of United States citizens owned a pet. In the United States in 1994, approximately 4.7 million people were bitten by dogs. The frequency of animal attacks varies with geographical location, as well as hormonal secretion. Gonad glands found on the anterior side of the pituitary gland secrete androgen and estrogen hormones. Animals with high levels of these hormones, which depending on the species can be a seasonal occurrence, such as during rutting season, tend to be more aggressive, which leads to a higher frequency of attacks not only to humans but among themselves. In the United States, a person is more likely to be killed by a domesticated dog than they are to die from being hit by lightning according to the National Safety Council.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Feline zoonosis</span> Medical condition

A feline zoonosis is a viral, bacterial, fungal, protozoan, nematode or arthropod infection that can be transmitted to humans from the domesticated cat, Felis catus. Some of these diseases are reemerging and newly emerging infections or infestations caused by zoonotic pathogens transmitted by cats. In some instances, the cat can display symptoms of infection and sometimes the cat remains asymptomatic. There can be serious illnesses and clinical manifestations in people who become infected. This is dependent on the immune status and age of the person. Those who live in close association with cats are more prone to these infections, but those that do not keep cats as pets can also acquire these infections as the transmission can be from cat feces and the parasites that leave their bodies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cat bite</span> Medical condition

Cat bites are bites inflicted upon humans, other cats, and other animals by the domestic cat. Data from the United States show that cat bites represent between 5–15% of all animal bites inflicted to humans, but it has been argued that this figure could be the consequence of under-reporting as bites made by cats are considered by some to be unimportant. Though uncommon, cat bites can sometimes cause rabies lead to complications and, very rarely, death.

References

  1. ↑ Putro BC, Dachlan I (2018). "The effect of human saliva compared to Aloe vera on wound healing of 2 nd degree burn injury in animal models". Journal of Thee Medical Sciences (Berkala Ilmu Kedokteran). 50 (4). doi: 10.19106/JMEDSCIE/005004201801 . S2CID   198383710.
  2. ↑ Engel C (2003). Wild Health: Lessons in Natural Wellness from the Animal Kingdom . Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN   9780618340682.
  3. ↑ Szpaderska AM, Zuckerman JD, DiPietro LA (August 2003). "Differential Injury Responses in Oral Mucosal and Cutaneous Wounds". J. Dent. Res. 82 (8): 621–6. doi:10.1177/154405910308200810. PMID   12885847. S2CID   6281177.
  4. ↑ Glazko AJ, Greenberg DM (1938). "The mechanism of the action of saliva in blood coagulation". Am J Physiol. 125: 108–12. doi: 10.1152/ajplegacy.1938.125.1.108 .
  5. ↑ Berckmans RJ, Sturk A, van Tienen LM, Schaap MC, Nieuwland R (2011). "Cell-derived vesicles exposing coagulant tissue factor in saliva". Blood. 117 (11): 3172–80. doi: 10.1182/blood-2010-06-290460 . PMID   21248061.
  6. ↑ Gross PL (2011). "Salivary microvesicles clot blood". Blood. 117 (11): 2989. doi: 10.1182/blood-2011-02-332759 . PMID   21415275.
  7. ↑ Ihalin R, Loimaranta V, Tenovuo J (January 2006). "Origin, structure, and biological activities of peroxidases in human saliva". Arch Biochem Biophys. 445 (2): 261–8. doi:10.1016/j.abb.2005.07.004. PMID   16111647.
  8. ↑ Abiko Y, Nishimura M, Kaku T (2003). "Defensins in saliva and the salivary glands". Med Electron Microsc. 36 (4): 247–52. doi:10.1007/s00795-003-0225-0. PMID   16228657. S2CID   31895839.
  9. ↑ Schenkels LC, Veerman EC, Nieuw Amerongen AV (1995). "Biochemical composition of human saliva in relation to other mucosal fluids". Crit. Rev. Oral Biol. Med. 6 (2): 161–75. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.494.57 . doi:10.1177/10454411950060020501. PMID   7548622.
  10. ↑ Campo J, Perea MA, del Romero J, Cano J, Hernando V, Bascones A (May 2006). "Oral transmission of HIV, reality or fiction? An update". Oral Dis. 12 (3): 219–28. doi:10.1111/j.1601-0825.2005.01187.x. PMID   16700731. Archived from the original on 8 January 2012.
  11. ↑ Baron S, Singh I, Chopra A, Coppenhaver D, Pan J (November 2000). "Innate antiviral defenses in body fluids and tissues". Antiviral Res. 48 (2): 71–89. doi:10.1016/S0166-3542(00)00126-1. PMC   7125796 . PMID   11114410.
  12. ↑ Ashcroft GS, Lei K, Jin W, et al. (October 2000). "Secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor mediates non-redundant functions necessary for normal wound healing". Nat. Med. 6 (10): 1147–53. doi:10.1038/80489. PMID   11017147. S2CID   7738015.
  13. ↑ Kate Wong: A Protein's Healing Powers. Scientific American 2 October 2000
  14. ↑ Benjamin N, Pattullo S, Weller R, Smith L, Ormerod A (June 1997). "Wound licking and nitric oxide". Lancet. 349 (9067): 1776. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)63002-4. PMID   9193412. S2CID   5405352.
  15. ↑ Zelles T, Purushotham KR, Macauley SP, Oxford GE, Humphreys-Beher MG (December 1995). "Saliva and growth factors: the fountain of youth resides in us all". J. Dent. Res. 74 (12): 1826–32. doi:10.1177/00220345950740120301. PMID   8600176. S2CID   1540916.
  16. ↑ Jahovic N, Güzel E, Arbak S, Yeğen BC (September 2004). "The healing-promoting effect of saliva on skin burn is mediated by epidermal growth factor (EGF): role of the neutrophils". Burns. 30 (6): 531–8. doi:10.1016/j.burns.2004.02.007. PMID   15302417.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  17. ↑ Pammer J, Weninger W, Mildner M, Burian M, Wojta J, Tschachler E (October 1998). "Vascular endothelial growth factor is constitutively expressed in normal human salivary glands and is secreted in the saliva of healthy individuals". J. Pathol. 186 (2): 186–91. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1096-9896(1998100)186:2<186::AID-PATH148>3.0.CO;2-J. PMID   9924435. S2CID   38787698. Archived from the original on 5 January 2013.
  18. ↑ Schrementi ME, Ferreira AM, Zender C, DiPietro LA (2008). "Site-specific production of TGF-beta in oral mucosal and cutaneous wounds". Wound Repair Regen. 16 (1): 80–6. doi:10.1111/j.1524-475X.2007.00320.x. PMID   18086295. S2CID   57591440. Archived from the original on 5 January 2013.
  19. ↑ Frank S, Stallmeyer B, Kämpfer H, Kolb N, Pfeilschifter J (August 2000). "Leptin enhances wound re-epithelialization and constitutes a direct function of leptin in skin repair". J. Clin. Invest. 106 (4): 501–9. doi:10.1172/JCI9148. PMC   380250 . PMID   10953025.
  20. ↑ Gröschl M, Topf HG, Kratzsch J, Dötsch J, Rascher W, Rauh M (April 2005). "Salivary leptin induces increased expression of growth factors in oral keratinocytes". J. Mol. Endocrinol. 34 (2): 353–66. doi: 10.1677/jme.1.01658 . PMID   15821102.
  21. ↑ Costigan DC, Guyda HJ, Posner BI (May 1988). "Free insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) and IGF-II in human saliva". J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 66 (5): 1014–8. doi:10.1210/jcem-66-5-1014. PMID   3360895.
  22. ↑ Todorović V, Pesko P, Micev M, et al. (October 2008). "Insulin-like growth factor-I in wound healing of rat skin". Regul. Pept. 150 (1–3): 7–13. doi:10.1016/j.regpep.2008.05.006. PMID   18597865. S2CID   45969233.
  23. ↑ Sugiura T, Nakane S, Kishimoto S, Waku K, Yoshioka Y, Tokumura A (December 2002). "Lysophosphatidic acid, a growth factor-like lipid, in the saliva". J. Lipid Res. 43 (12): 2049–55. doi: 10.1194/jlr.M200242-JLR200 . PMID   12454265.
  24. ↑ Balazs L, Okolicany J, Ferrebee M, Tolley B, Tigyi G (1 February 2001). "Topical application of the phospholipid growth factor lysophosphatidic acid promotes wound healing in vivo". Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 280 (2): R466–72. doi:10.1152/ajpregu.2001.280.2.R466. PMID   11208576. S2CID   13089523.
  25. ↑ Pogrel MA, Low MA, Stern R (June 2003). "Hyaluronan (hyaluronic acid) and its regulation in human saliva by hyaluronidase and its inhibitors" (PDF). J Oral Sci. 45 (2): 85–91. doi: 10.2334/josnusd.45.85 . PMID   12930131.
  26. ↑ Li AK, Koroly MJ, Schattenkerk ME, Malt RA, Young M (July 1980). "Nerve growth factor: acceleration of the rate of wound healing in mice". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 77 (7): 4379–81. Bibcode:1980PNAS...77.4379L. doi: 10.1073/pnas.77.7.4379 . PMC   349838 . PMID   6933491.
  27. ↑ Kawamoto K, Matsuda H (2004). "Nerve growth factor and wound healing". NGF and Related Molecules in Health and Disease. Progress in Brain Research. Vol. 146. pp. 369–84. doi:10.1016/S0079-6123(03)46023-8. ISBN   978-0-444-51472-1. PMID   14699974.{{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)
  28. ↑ Nam JW, Chung JW, Kho HS, Chung SC, Kim YK (March 2007). "Nerve growth factor concentration in human saliva". Oral Dis. 13 (2): 187–92. doi:10.1111/j.1601-0825.2006.01265.x. PMID   17305621. Archived from the original on 10 October 2012.
  29. ↑ Oudhoff MJ, Bolscher JG, Nazmi K, et al. (November 2008). "Histatins are the major wound-closure stimulating factors in human saliva as identified in a cell culture assay". FASEB J. 22 (11): 3805–12. doi: 10.1096/fj.08-112003 . PMID   18650243. S2CID   19797007.
  30. ↑ Wright K (28 December 2008). "Top 100 Stories of 2008 #62: Researchers Discover Why Wound-Licking Works". Discover Magazine.
  31. ↑ Sørensen OE, Cowland JB, Theilgaard-Mönch K, Liu L, Ganz T, Borregaard N (1 June 2003). "Wound healing and expression of antimicrobial peptides/polypeptides in human keratinocytes, a consequence of common growth factors". J. Immunol. 170 (11): 5583–9. doi: 10.4049/jimmunol.170.11.5583 . PMID   12759437.
  32. ↑ Wisner A, Dufour E, Messaoudi M, et al. (November 2006). "Human Opiorphin, a natural antinociceptive modulator of opioid-dependent pathways". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 103 (47): 17979–84. Bibcode:2006PNAS..10317979W. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0605865103 . PMC   1693858 . PMID   17101991.
  33. ↑ Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology. "Licking Your Wounds: Scientists Isolate Compound in Human Saliva That Speeds Wound Healing." ScienceDaily. ScienceDaily, 24 July 2008.
  34. ↑ Hart BL, Powell KL (September 1990). "Antibacterial properties of saliva: role in maternal periparturient grooming and in licking wounds". Physiol. Behav. 48 (3): 383–6. doi:10.1016/0031-9384(90)90332-X. PMID   2125128. S2CID   27717690.
  35. ↑ Bodner L, Knyszynski A, Adler-Kunin S, Danon D (1991). "The effect of selective desalivation on wound healing in mice". Exp. Gerontol. 26 (4): 357–63. doi:10.1016/0531-5565(91)90047-P. PMID   1936194. S2CID   21897174.
  36. ↑ Hutson JM, Niall M, Evans D, Fowler R (June 1979). "Effect of salivary glands on wound contraction in mice". Nature. 279 (5716): 793–5. Bibcode:1979Natur.279..793H. doi:10.1038/279793a0. PMID   450129. S2CID   4273490.
  37. ↑ Bodner L (1991). "Effect of parotid submandibular and sublingual saliva on wound healing in rats". Comp Biochem Physiol A. 100 (4): 887–90. doi:10.1016/0300-9629(91)90309-Z. PMID   1685381.
  38. ↑ Dittus WP, Ratnayeke SM (1989). "Individual and social behavioral responses to injury in wild toque macaques (Macaca Sinica)". International Journal of Primatology. 10 (3): 215–34. doi:10.1007/BF02735201. S2CID   25815676.
  39. ↑ Shumaker AK, Angus JC, Coyner KS, Loeffler DG, Rankin SC, Lewis TP (October 2008). "Microbiological and histopathological features of canine acral lick dermatitis". Veterinary Dermatology. 19 (5): 288–98. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3164.2008.00693.x. PMID   18699812.
  40. ↑ Mansfield K, McElhinney L, Hübschle O, et al. (2006). "A molecular epidemiological study of rabies epizootics in kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) in Namibia". BMC Vet. Res. 2: 2. doi: 10.1186/1746-6148-2-2 . PMC   1382222 . PMID   16412222.
  41. ↑ Fabrini P, Isoleri, Antonio (1900). The life of St. Mary Magdalen De-Pazzi : Florentine noble, sacred Carmelite virgin. Philadelphia.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  42. ↑ Eve E (2008). "Spit in Your Eye: The Blind Man of Bethsaida and the Blind Man of Alexandria". New Testament Studies. 54: 1–17. doi:10.1017/S0028688508000015. S2CID   170335886.
  43. ↑ "Pliny Natural History: Book XXVIII: Chapter XXIII". Loeb Classical Library.
  44. ↑ Köstenberger AJ (December 2004). John. Baker Academic. p. 283. ISBN   978-0-8010-2644-7.
  45. ↑ Weil HP, Fischer-Brügge U, Koch P (April 2002). "Potential hazard of wound licking" (PDF). N. Engl. J. Med. 346 (17): 1336. doi:10.1056/NEJM200204253461721. PMID   11973376.
  46. ↑ Hatfield G (2004). Encyclopedia of Folk Medicine: Old World and New World Traditions. ABC-CLIO. ISBN   9781576078747.
  47. ↑ Daniels CL, C. M. Stevans (2003). Encyclopfdia of Superstitions, Folklore, and the Occult Sciences of the World (Volume II). Minerva Group Inc. p. 668. ISBN   9781410209153.
  48. ↑ The Aberdeen Bestiary, a thirteenth-century English illuminated manuscript
  49. ↑ Angeletti LR, Agrimi U, Curia C, French D, Mariani-Costantini R (July 1992). "Healing rituals and sacred serpents". Lancet. 340 (8813): 223–5. doi:10.1016/0140-6736(92)90480-Q. PMID   1353146. S2CID   23136986.
  50. ↑ Serpell J (1996). In the Company of Animals: A Study of Human-animal Relationships. Cambridge University Press. ISBN   9780521577793.
  51. ↑ Ananikian M (1925). Armenian Mythology in The Mythology of All Races Volume VII. New York: Archaeological Institute of America, Marshall Jones Co.
  52. ↑ Gregor W (1881). Notes on the Folk-Lore of the North-East of Scotland. Forgotten Books. p. 251. ISBN   978-1-60506-178-8. Archived from the original on 25 July 2011. Retrieved 13 February 2009.
  53. ↑ DiNubile MJ, Lipsky BA (June 2004). "Complicated infections of skin and skin structures: when the infection is more than skin deep" (PDF). J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 53 (Suppl 2): ii37–50. doi: 10.1093/jac/dkh202 . PMID   15150182.
  54. ↑ Yu GV, Boike AM, Hladik JR (1995). "An unusual case of diabetic cellulitis due to Pasturella multocida". J Foot Ankle Surg. 34 (1): 91–5. doi:10.1016/S1067-2516(09)80109-9. PMID   7780401.
  55. ↑ Hazouard E, Ferrandière M, Lanotte P, Le Marcis L, Cattier B, Giniès G (September 2000). "[Septic shock caused by Pasteurella multocida in alcoholic patients. Probable contamination of leg ulcers by the saliva of the domestic cats]". Presse Med (in French). 29 (16): 1455–7. PMID   11039085.
  56. ↑ Valtonen M, Lauhio A, Carlson P, et al. (June 1995). "Capnocytophaga canimorsus septicemia: fifth report of a cat-associated infection and five other cases". Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 14 (6): 520–3. doi:10.1007/BF02113430. PMID   7588825. S2CID   631013.
  57. ↑ Phanuphak P, Ubolyam S, Sirivichayakul S (1994). "Should travellers in rabies endemic areas receive pre-exposure rabies immunization?". Ann Med Interne. 145 (6): 409–11. PMID   7864502.
  58. ↑ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (July 2004). "Investigation of rabies infections in organ donor and transplant recipients—Alabama, Arkansas, Oklahoma, and Texas, 2004". MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 53 (26): 586–9. PMID   15241303.
  59. ↑ Knowles J (27 January – 2 February 2000). "Dog saliva complicates the healing of ulcers". Nurs Times. 96 (4 Suppl): 8. PMID   10827733.
  60. ↑ Konieczny A, Morgenstern JP, Bizinkauskas CB, et al. (December 1997). "The major dog allergens, Can f 1 and Can f 2, are salivary lipocalin proteins: cloning and immunological characterization of the recombinant forms". Immunology. 92 (4): 577–86. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2567.1997.00386.x. PMC   1364166 . PMID   9497502.
  61. ↑ Dupuy O, Garrabé E, Bordier L, Boyer B, Goasguen O, Mayaudon H, Bauduceau B (October 2006). "Pasteurella dagmatis spondylodiscitis in a diabetic patient". Rev Méd Interne (in French). 27 (10): 803–4. doi:10.1016/j.revmed.2006.05.018. PMID   16978746.
  62. ↑ Heym B, Jouve F, Lemoal M, Veil-Picard A, Lortat-Jacob A, Nicolas-Chanoine MH (October 2006). "Pasteurella multocida infection of a total knee arthroplasty after a "dog lick"". Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 14 (10): 993–7. doi:10.1007/s00167-005-0022-5. PMID   16468067. S2CID   7446046.
  63. ↑ Low SC, Greenwood JE (2008). "Capnocytophaga canimorsus: infection, septicaemia, recovery and reconstruction". Journal of Medical Microbiology. 57 (7): 901–903. doi: 10.1099/jmm.0.47756-0 . ISSN   0022-2615. PMID   18566152.
  64. ↑ Low SC, Greenwood JE (July 2008). "Capnocytophaga canimorsus: infection, septicaemia, recovery and reconstruction". J. Med. Microbiol. 57 (Pt 7): 901–3. doi: 10.1099/jmm.0.47756-0 . PMID   18566152.
  65. ↑ Staff writers (25 July 2008). "Woman loses leg, fingers, toes from dog lick". Herald Sun. Retrieved 30 January 2009.
  66. ↑ Anderson CE, Jayawardene SA, Carmichael P (2000). "A lick may be as bad as a bite: irreversible acute renal failure". Nephrol Dial Transplant. 15 (11): 1883–4. doi: 10.1093/ndt/15.11.1883 . PMID   11071985.
  67. ↑ Ko Chang, L. K. Siu, Yen-Hsu Chen, Po-Liang Lu, Tun-Chieh Chen, Hsiao-Chen Hsieh, Chun-Lu Lin (2007). "Fatal Pasteurella multocida septicemia and necrotizing fasciitis related with wound licked by a domestic dog". Scandinavian Journal of Infectious Diseases. 39 (2): 167–70. doi:10.1080/00365540600786572. PMID   17366037. S2CID   29739347.
  68. ↑ Godey B, Morandi X, Bourdinière J, Heurtin C (1999). "Beware of dogs licking ears". Lancet. 354 (9186): 1267–8. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(99)04197-5. PMID   10520644. S2CID   34432193.
  69. ↑ Chun ML, Buekers TE, Sood AK, Sorosky JI (April 2003). "Postoperative wound infection with Pasteurella multocida from a pet cat". Am J Obstet Gynecol. 188 (4): 1115–6. doi:10.1067/mob.2003.266. PMID   12712125.
  70. ↑ Bryant BJ, Conry-Cantilena C, Ahlgren A, Felice A, Stroncek DF, Gibble J, Leitman SF (November 2007). "Pasteurella multocida bacteremia in asymptomatic plateletpheresis donors: a tale of two cats". Transfusion. 47 (11): 1984–9. doi:10.1111/j.1537-2995.2007.01421.x. PMID   17958526. S2CID   25123364. Archived from the original on 5 January 2013.
  71. ↑ Wade T, Booy R, Teare EL, Kroll S (November 1999). "Pasteurella multocida meningitis in infancy – (a lick may be as bad as a bite)". Eur J Pediatr. 158 (11): 875–8. doi:10.1007/s004310051232. PMID   10541939. S2CID   24293826.
  72. ↑ wikt:To lick one's wounds
  73. ↑ Dryden J (1677). All for Love, or the World Well Lost. Archived from the original on 2 October 2015. Retrieved 27 March 2009.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.