18th century glassmaking in the United States

Last updated

Salt dish from New Bremen glass factory, Maryland circa 1780s Salt MET DP105070.jpg
Salt dish from New Bremen glass factory, Maryland circa 1780s

18th century glassmaking in the United States began before the country existed. During the previous century, several attempts were made to produce glass, but none were long-lived. By 1700, it is thought that little or no glass was being produced in the British colonies that would eventually become the United States. The first American glass factory operated with long–term success was started by Caspar Wistar in 1745—although two glass works in New Amsterdam that operated in the previous century deserve honorable mention. Wistar's glass works was located in the English colony known as the Province of New Jersey. In the southeastern portion of the Province of Pennsylvania, Henry Stiegel was the first American producer of high–quality glassware known as crystal. Stiegel's first glass works began in 1763, and his better quality glassmaking began in 1769. In the United States, the first use of coal as a fuel for glassmaking furnaces is believed to have started in 1794 at a short-lived factory on the Schuylkill River near Philadelphia. In 1797 Pittsburgh's O'Hara and Craig glass works was also powered by coal, and it contributed to the eventual establishment of Pittsburgh as a leading glassmaking center in the 19th century.

Contents

Many of the skilled glass workers in the United States during the 17th and 18th centuries came from the German-speaking region of Europe. German–born Johann Friedrich Amelung (later renamed John Frederick Amelung) employed 342 people in 1788 at his New Bremen glass works located in Frederick County, Maryland. His skilled workers were German. Other prominent glass makers such as Wistar, Stiegel, and the Stanger brothers were also German. In many cases, as a glass works failed, the skilled workers found work at another factory.

Other attempts to produce glass were made during the 1600s and 1700s, and a few had some success. Glass works in New Amsterdam and New York City, the Colony of Massachusetts Bay, Philadelphia, and the province of New Jersey's Glassboro are often mentioned by historians. Much of the evidence concerning the 17th century New Amsterdam glass factories has been lost, and a 17th-century Massachusetts glassworks did not last long. The works at Glassboro lasted into the 20th century. However, it is thought that there were no more than a dozen glass works of significant size producing in the United States in 1800.

Glassmaking

Glassblower creating a hollow cylinder as the first step for window glass Window glassblower 1880s.png
Glassblower creating a hollow cylinder as the first step for window glass

Glassmakers use the term "batch" for the sum of all the raw ingredients needed to make a particular glass product. [1] To make glass, the glassmaker starts with the batch, melts it together, forms the glass product, and gradually cools it. The batch is dominated by sand, which contains silica. Smaller quantities of other ingredients, such as soda and limestone, are added to the batch. [2] Additional ingredients may be added to color the glass. For example, an oxide of cobalt is used to make glass blue. [3] Broken and scrap glass, known as cullet, is often used as an ingredient to make new glass. The cullet melts faster than the other ingredients, which results in some savings in fuel cost for the furnace. Cullet typically accounts for 25 to 50 percent of the batch. [4]

The batch is placed inside a pot that is heated by a furnace to roughly 3,090 °F (1,700 °C). [2] [Note 1] Tank furnaces, which were created in England in 1870, did not began to supplant pot furnaces in the United States until the 1890s. [6] Glassmakers use the term "metal" to describe batch that has been melted together. [7] The metal is typically shaped into the glass product (other than plate and window glass) by either glassblowing or pressing it into a mold. [8] Although pressing glass by hand had long existed, mechanical pressing of glass did not exist until the 1820s—and it was an American invention. [9] All glass products must then be cooled gradually (annealed), or else they could easily break. [10] Annealing was originally conducted in the United States using a kiln that was sealed with the fresh glass inside, heated, and gradually cooled. [11] During the 1860s annealing kilns were replaced in the United States with a conveyor oven, called a lehr, that was less labor-intensive. [12]

Until the 1760s, most glass produced in what would become the United States was "green" or "bottle" glass, which has a greenish color because of impurities in the sand used in the batch—and a lack of additives used to remove the greenish tint or add a more pleasing color. [13] Crystal glass, a high quality clear glass that needs an additive known as red lead, began being produced by one works in the Province of Pennsylvania in the 1760s. [14] Window glass production during the 18th century involved blowing a cylinder and flattening it. [15] The Crown method and the Cylinder method (which was more advanced) were the two main methods used. [16]

One of the major expenses for the glass factories is fuel for the furnace, and this often determined the location of the glass works. [17] Wood was the original fuel used by glassmakers in the United States. Coal began being used in the 1790s. [18] Alternative fuels such as natural gas and oil did not become available in the United States until the second half of the 19th century. [19] Other important aspects of glassmaking are labor and transportation. [20] Glassmaking methods and recipes were kept secret, and most European countries forbid immigration to the United States by glassworkers. [21] Some of the skilled glassworkers were smuggled from Europe to the United States. [21] Waterways provided transportation networks for the glass factories before the construction of highways and railroads. [22] The first railroad in the United States was not chartered until 1827, and construction began in 1828. [23]

Background

The 13 British American colonies before the United States existed Thirteencolonies politics cropped.jpg
The 13 British American colonies before the United States existed

The first attempt to produce glass in what became the United States happened in 1608 in the English (later British) Colony of Virginia near the settlement at Jamestown. [24] Glass was produced for a few years. A second attempt was made during the 1620s, but production ceased again after only a few years. [25] More glassmaking was conducted for a short time in the Colony of Massachusetts Bay near Salem in the 1640s, and in the province of Pennsylvania near Philadelphia in the 1680s. [26] At least two works produced glass in the Dutch colony of New Amsterdam during portions of the 1650s through 1670s. [27] Very little is known about these glass factories, but it is possible that one continued producing into the 1760s. [28]

Unless the glass works in New Amsterdam (now New York) was still operating, no glass works are known to have operated in what became the United States from 1700 until close to the 1740s. [26] Most glass was imported from London or Bristol. The English glass industry produced window glass using the crown method, and it produced good quality lead glass (crystal) tableware. The glass industry in German areas of Northern Europe was in a recession, and that situation may have led to Germans coming to the English colonies to produce glass. [29] Prior to 1800, about two dozen glass works operated in the English colonies that became the United States, and some of them continued production into the 19th century. [30]

18th Century

Wistar - first long term success

Cream jug made at either Wistarberg or at Glassboro in a plant led by former Wistar workers, Los Angeles County Museum of Art Cream Jug LACMA 56.35.133.jpg
Cream jug made at either Wistarberg or at Glassboro in a plant led by former Wistar workers, Los Angeles County Museum of Art

In 1738 Caspar Wistar, a German immigrant and manufacturer of brass buttons in Philadelphia, began plans for a glass works by purchasing land in Salem County, New Jersey. [Note 2] Production started in 1739. [32] Wistar, who was originally from the Palatine region of what is now Germany, hired German glassworkers to make bottles, tableware, and window glass. [33] The Cylinder method was used for making the window glass, and bottles were made of a clear green glass. [34] His original partners in the glassmaking project were four glassblowers from German portions of Europe. [35] [Note 3]

Wistar's glassmaking company was known by multiple names, including United Glass Company, Wistar Glass Works, Wistarberg Glass Works, and Wistarburg Glass Works. [37] Although the glass works was approximately 40 miles (64 km) from Philadelphia, Wistar maintained a Philadelphia residence and sold much of his glass there. [38] Benjamin Franklin used Wistar's glass for some of his electrical experiments. [35] After Caspar Wistar died in 1752, his son Richard led the glass works. The business continued to grow for about two more years before it began to have problems keeping workers, which led to problems with glass quality. [37] The glassworks operated sporadically beginning in the 1775–1776 winter, and was offered for sale in 1780. Richard Wistar died in 1781. The glass works was eventually closed and abandoned. [37]

Wistar began the German domination of American glassmaking that continued until the 19th century. [39] Many of Wistar's skilled German workers moved to rival glass companies or started their own glass works, and they taught their methods and styles to others. [40] Historians often consider Wistar's glass works to be the first commercially successful manufacturer of glass in the United States, although at least one has said the 17th century Smedes or Duijcking–Milyer glass works in New Amsterdam merit consideration. [41]

Stiegel - first lead crystal

Stiegel pocket bottle, Metropolitan Museum of Art Pocket bottle MET DP207332 (cropped).jpg
Stiegel pocket bottle, Metropolitan Museum of Art

German immigrant Heinrich Wilhelm Stiegel, nicknamed "Baron Stiegel", was born in Cologne in 1729. He arrived in Philadelphia in 1750, and moved to Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, a few years later. [42] He married in 1752, and bought out his father–in–law's interest in a plantation that became known as Elizabeth Furnace, which included a blast furnace used to make iron stoves. [43] He became a citizen of the English colony of Pennsylvania in 1760, and changed his name to Henry William Stiegel. [44]

Stiegel was the second German to operate an American glass works on a large scale. [39] He built some "glass–ovens" at Elizabeth Furnace in 1762, and began making glass in 1763. [45] Products were bottles and window glass. [46] He hired European glassblowers, including some from Venice, and paid for their transportation to Pennsylvania. [47] One of his first hires was a glassblower who had worked at the Wistar works. [40]

Nearly two years later he started another glass factory in Manheim, Pennsylvania. During 1769, he started a third glass works in the same town that focused on quality tableware, and employed more men that had worked at the Wistar glass plant. [48] He called this works the American Flint Glass Manufactory. [49] Stiegel's works was the first to make lead glass in America. [50] The lead glass of this time period, commonly known as crystal because it was colorless and transparent, was the finest glass available. [51] Stiegel had retail outlets for his glass at various locations in the English colonies. However, he expanded too fast and ended production in 1774. He was briefly held in a debtors' prison. [52]

Stanger and Glassboro - nearly 150 years

Whitney Glass Works US-NJ(1891) p566 GLASSBORO, WHITNEY GLASS-WORKS.jpg
Whitney Glass Works

The Stanger family immigrated to Philadelphia in 1768. [53] [Note 4] They were German glassmakers who came from Hesse, and the family had seven sons. At least one of the sons worked at the Wistar Glass Works. [53] The brothers started a glass works between 1779 and 1781 in what became known as Glassboro, New Jersey. [55] The works is believed to have begun producing in the fall of 1781. [56] The brothers were led by Solomon (the original land holder) and Daniel Stanger, and their glass works was the second (after Wistar) located in "South Jersey". [56] Their original products were bottles. [57]

By 1784 all of the Stanger brothers had sold their interests in the Glassboro glass works, although they remained working with glass. [53] At that time, Thomas Heston and Thomas Carpenter controlled the Glassboro works. [58] In addition to bottles, the company began making window glass and other products. [58] Heston died in 1802, but the factory operated under various owners for over 100 years—including the Whitney brothers who were descendants of Heston. [59] At one time the factory was known as the Olive Glass Works. [60] The plant, known at the time as Whitney Glass, was purchased by one of Michael Owens' companies in 1918. [61]

Amelung's big investment

Amelung 1791 goblet, Metropolitan Museum of Art Goblet MET DP207330.jpg
Amelung 1791 goblet, Metropolitan Museum of Art

Another German, Johann Friedrich Amelung (later renamed John Frederick Amelung), arrived in Baltimore on August 31, 1784. [62] He brought 68 German–speaking glass workers, and at least 14 more joined him a few months later. He purchased land in Frederick County, Maryland along Bennett's Creek to the north and east of Sugarloaf Mountain. [63] He called the area "New  Bremen", and built a glassmaking furnace and housing for his workers. [64] [Note 5] On February 11, 1785, he announced that a group of "German manufacturers have arrived and will establish a factory", and that "window glass, table glass, optical glass, looking glass" would be their products. [64]

In 1788 Amelung employed 342 people at his glass works. [68] Window glass was made using the Cylinder method and the Crown method. [69] Archaeological evidence suggests his bottles were made with a transparent green glass that did not require molds. [65] During 1788 he applied for a loan from the State of Maryland, and received the loan plus tax exemption for five years. Over the next two years his glassmaking facilities had at least two fires that did an undetermined amount of damage. [68] Amelung had financial difficulties, and the glass works was offered for sale in 1795. [70] Amelung had invested more money in glassmaking than anyone ever had (at the time), and his factory produced impressive quality glass—but his business failed after 11 years. [71] Amelung died in 1798. [72]

18th century works still operating in the 19th century

In 1800 most of the nation's glass products came from Europe, and the United States was thought to have about ten glass factories. [73] [Note 6] The domestic glass works were typically located near waterways that provided a transportation resource. Although some high–quality tableware may have been produced in Philadelphia or Baltimore, most glass factories produced bottles or window glass. [75]

Philadelphia–New Jersey

Kensington Glass Works flask, Metropolitan Museum of Art Figured flask MET DP207115.jpg
Kensington Glass Works flask, Metropolitan Museum of Art

Maryland

Baltimore Glass Works flask, Metropolitan Museum of Art Flask MET DP244569.jpg
Baltimore Glass Works flask, Metropolitan Museum of Art

Pittsburgh

Pittsburgh 1795 Pittsburgh 1795 large.jpg
Pittsburgh 1795

New York–New England

Products of Pitkin Glass Works PitkinGlassWorksbottles.png
Products of Pitkin Glass Works

Other 18th century glass works

Listed below are glass works that existed during the 18th century but did not survive into the 19th century. The "Name" is the name of the glass works if available. In cases where there was no name, either the main investor or some type of geographic identifier is used, and "glass works" or "glass house" is not capitalized. The companies are not in alphabetical order—the order is when the company started producing. The major source for the list is the McKearin & McKearin book, although others have been reviewed. [113] The Schuylkill glass works, listed below, may have been the first glass factory to use coal to power its furnaces. [50] [Note 7]

Philadelphia area

Philadelphia Area Glassmaking Centers 1680-1800 Glassmaking Near Philadelphia 1680-1800.png
Philadelphia Area Glassmaking Centers 1680-1800

Frederick Maryland

Maryland Glassmaking Centers 1760-1800 Mayrland Glassmaking Centers 1780-1800.png
Maryland Glassmaking Centers 1760-1800

New York

Glasshouse Company of New York glass works GlassHouseCompanyOfNewYork1752.png
Glasshouse Company of New York glass works

New England

New England – Did not operate

  • Darling: In 1747 Thomas Darling was granted sole rights to produce glass in the Connecticut Colony for 20 years, but was unable to fulfill the conditions of the agreement. [132]
  • Crellins: In 1752 Joseph Crellins was given permission by the Province of Massachusetts Bay colonial governor to begin a glass works provided he could secure German workmen. He could not meet the requirement before the agreement expired. [133]
  • Windslow: In 1752 Isaac C. Winslow received sole rights to produce glass in the Colony of Rhode Island. It is not believed that glass was ever produced. [77]

Future glassmaking

Boston and Sandwich Glass Company perfume bottle on display at the Dallas Museum of Art Perfume bottle, Boston and Sandwich Glass Company, Sandwich, Massachusetts, c. 1830-1840, glass - Dallas Museum of Art - DSC04824.jpg
Boston and Sandwich Glass Company perfume bottle on display at the Dallas Museum of Art

For the next fifty (1801–1850) years, American glassmaking experienced strong competition from English producers—but then growth and innovation. Initially, English glass manufacturers dumped low–priced glass products in the United States, which drove many American glass companies into bankruptcy. [134] England also controlled the supply of red lead that was a key additive for high–quality glassware. [134] The United States Embargo Act of 1807, and the War of 1812, made red lead extremely difficult for American companies to acquire. [135]

The United States Tariff of 1824, which was a protective tariff, helped the American glass industry. Between 1820 and 1840, nearly 70 glass factories were started. Most of these factories were small businesses employing 25 to 40 workers. [73] Higher quality glass became more available when American glass man Deming Jarves, sometimes called the "father of the American glass industry", developed a way to produce red lead from domestic sources of lead oxide. [136] The most important innovation for the 1820s was the development of machine pressed glass—pressing glass into a mold. [137] John P. Bakewell of Bakewell and Company, New England Glass Company, and Jarves' Boston and Sandwich Glass Company were early users of machine pressed glass technology. [138]

Glassmaking on the East Coast of the United States peaked before 1850, as plants shifted to Pittsburgh because of the availability of coal for fuel. [139] By 1850, the United States had 3,237 free men above age 15 who listed their occupation as part of the glass manufacturing process. [140] Pennsylvania accounted for 40% of the glassmaking employees. Other states with more than 100 glass workers were New Jersey, New York, Massachusetts, and Virginia (including what is now West Virginia). [140] [Note 9]

Notes

Footnotes

  1. ↑ An older source quotes a glass works spokesman as saying the furnace is heated to between 2,800 °F (1,540 °C) and 3,600 °F (1,980 °C). [5]
  2. ↑ Caspar Wistar's grandson, Dr. Caspar Wistar, became a famous physician. [31]
  3. ↑ While at least three sources say the four glassblowers were German, at least one source says they were from Belgium. [36]
  4. ↑ The family name has been spelled at least seven different ways: Stanger, Stenger, Stinger, Staenger, Steenger, Syanger, and Sanger. [54]
  5. ↑ Sources conflict over Amelung building a glass works. An obscure glassworks known as the Foltz–Kramer–Eberhardt factory existed on the property. [65] Amelung never mentioned the previous works. It is not known if Amelung demolished the old works, or if he modified and added to it. [66] A Frederick newspaper article mentioned the Foltz–Kramer–Eberhardt glass factory, and notes that glassmaking in the area began around 1759. [67]
  6. ↑ This count excludes at least two glass factories, one in Ohio and one in Baltimore, that began production during 1800. [74]
  7. ↑ Many historians cite the O'Hara and Craig Pittsburgh glass works as the first glass plant using coal for fuel. The Pittsburgh works, which lasted much longer than the Schuylkill works, began in 1797 and was managed by Peter William Eichbaum—who also helped start the Schuylkill works. [50]
  8. ↑ Some historians have said that Nicholson's sometime business partner, Robert Morris, was involved with the Schuylkill glass works, but that is not true. [30]
  9. ↑ North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia were the southernmost states in the original Thirteen British American colonies, and they all had zero glassmaking employees in the 1850 Census. [140]

Citations

  1. ↑ Shotwell 2002 , pp. 32–33
  2. 1 2 "How Glass is Made – What is glass made of? The wonders of glass all come down to melting sand". Corning. Archived from the original on July 5, 2023. Retrieved July 5, 2023.
  3. ↑ Shotwell 2002 , p. 94
  4. ↑ Shotwell 2002 , pp. 114–115
  5. ↑ Weeks & United States Census Office 1884, p. 35
  6. ↑ Scoville 1944 , p. 210
  7. ↑ Shotwell 2002 , p. 343
  8. ↑ Weeks & United States Census Office 1884 , p. 45
  9. ↑ Madarasz, Historical Society of Western Pennsylvania & Senator John Heinz Pittsburgh Regional History Center 1998 , p. 42
  10. ↑ "Corning Museum of Glass – Annealing Glass". Corning Museum of Glass. Archived from the original on July 5, 2023. Retrieved July 5, 2023.
  11. ↑ Madarasz, Historical Society of Western Pennsylvania & Senator John Heinz Pittsburgh Regional History Center 1998 , p. 48
  12. ↑ Madarasz, Historical Society of Western Pennsylvania & Senator John Heinz Pittsburgh Regional History Center 1998 , p. 48; "Corning Museum of Glass – Lehr". Corning Museum of Glass. Archived from the original on July 5, 2023. Retrieved July 5, 2023.
  13. ↑ Purvis 1999 , p. 107; Shotwell 2002 , p. 224; Weeks & United States Census Office 1884 , p. 21
  14. ↑ Weeks & United States Census Office 1884 , p. 21; Palmer 1979 , p. 107
  15. ↑ Weeks & United States Census Office 1884 , p. 20
  16. ↑ Louw 1991 , p. 48
  17. ↑ United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce 1917 , p. 12
  18. ↑ United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce 1917 , p. 13
  19. ↑ United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce 1917 , p. 13; Weeks & United States Census Office 1884 , p. 36
  20. ↑ Skrabec 2007 , p. 97
  21. 1 2 Skrabec 2011 , p. 20
  22. ↑ Poor 1868 , p. 11
  23. ↑ Poor 1868 , p. 20
  24. ↑ Scoville 1944 , p. 194
  25. ↑ Scoville 1944 , pp. 194–195
  26. 1 2 Scoville 1944 , p. 195
  27. ↑ Knittle 1927 , pp. 68–69, 73–74
  28. ↑ Knittle 1927 , p. 74
  29. ↑ Palmer 1976 , p. 77
  30. 1 2 3 Palmer 1979 , p. 102
  31. ↑ "Caspar Wistar 1761-1818". University of Pennsylvania, University Archives and Records Center. Archived from the original on November 13, 2023. Retrieved November 13, 2023.; "The Wistar Institute - Our Story". The Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology. Archived from the original on November 13, 2023. Retrieved November 13, 2023.
  32. ↑ Shotwell 2002 , pp. 616–617
  33. ↑ Shotwell 2002 , pp. 616–617; Zerwick 1990 , p. 71
  34. ↑ Lanmon & Palmer 1976 , p. 15
  35. 1 2 "1989 The Wistars and their Glass 1739 – 1777". Wheaton Arts and Cultural Center. Archived from the original on November 13, 2023. Retrieved November 13, 2023.
  36. ↑ "1989 The Wistars and their Glass 1739 – 1777". Wheaton Arts and Cultural Center. Archived from the original on November 13, 2023. Retrieved November 13, 2023.; Shotwell 2002, p. 617; Zerwick 1990, p. 71; Knittle 1927, p. 86
  37. 1 2 3 Shotwell 2002 , p. 617
  38. 1 2 Palmer 1979 , p. 104
  39. 1 2 Zerwick 1990 , p. 71
  40. 1 2 Palmer 1976 , p. 78
  41. ↑ "Find Rum Evidence from 18th Century". Midland Journal (from Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Lib. of Congress). September 10, 1920. Archived from the original on 2023-11-13. Retrieved 2023-12-06.; Zerwick 1990 , p. 71; "1989 The Wistars and their Glass 1739 – 1777". Wheaton Arts and Cultural Center. Archived from the original on November 13, 2023. Retrieved November 13, 2023.; McKearin & McKearin 1966 , p. 78; Knittle 1927 , pp. 94–95
  42. ↑ Knittle 1927 , pp. 118–119
  43. ↑ "Elizabeth Furnace Plantation Site". Millersville University. Archived from the original on November 21, 2023. Retrieved November 21, 2023.
  44. ↑ Knittle 1927 , p. 119
  45. ↑ Knittle 1927 , p. 120
  46. ↑ Lanmon & Palmer 1976 , p. 16
  47. ↑ Knittle 1927 , pp. 121–122
  48. ↑ Lanmon & Palmer 1976 , pp. 16–17; Knittle 1927 , p. 120
  49. ↑ "Pocket Bottle". The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Archived from the original on December 20, 2023. Retrieved December 20, 2023.
  50. 1 2 3 4 5 Palmer 1979 , p. 107
  51. ↑ Shotwell 2002 , p. 112
  52. ↑ Lanmon & Palmer 1976 , pp. 17–18
  53. 1 2 3 "Stanger family". Corning Museum of Glass. Archived from the original on November 21, 2023. Retrieved November 21, 2023.
  54. ↑ Knittle 1927, p. 152
  55. ↑ "Stanger family". Corning Museum of Glass. Archived from the original on November 21, 2023. Retrieved November 21, 2023.; Knittle 1927 , p. 153
  56. 1 2 Van Rensselaer 1926 , p. 134
  57. ↑ Knittle 1927 , p. 153
  58. 1 2 3 Knittle 1927 , p. 154
  59. ↑ Knittle 1927 , pp. 154–155
  60. ↑ Van Rensselaer 1926 , p. 135
  61. ↑ Skrabec 2007 , p. 43
  62. ↑ Quynn 1948 , p. 158; Zerwick 1990 , p. 72
  63. ↑ Quynn 1948 , p. 158
  64. 1 2 Quynn 1948 , p. 159
  65. 1 2 Lanmon & Palmer 1976a, p. 26
  66. ↑ Lanmon & Palmer 1976a, pp. 26, 28
  67. ↑ Martinkosky, Christina (August 1, 2020). "Preservation Matters: Glass–Making Located in Frederick". Frederick News–Post. Archived from the original on November 22, 2023. Retrieved November 22, 2023.
  68. 1 2 Quynn 1948 , p. 167
  69. ↑ Lanmon & Palmer 1976a , p. 27
  70. ↑ Quynn 1948 , p. 174
  71. ↑ Zerwick 1990 , p. 72
  72. ↑ Lanmon & Palmer 1976a , p. 38
  73. 1 2 Dyer & Gross 2001 , p. 23
  74. ↑ McKearin & McKearin 1966, p. 132; Daniel 1949, p. 107; Lanmon & Palmer 1976b, p. 41
  75. ↑ McKearin & McKearin 1966 , p. 132
  76. 1 2 Shotwell 2002 , p. 277
  77. 1 2 3 McKearin & McKearin 1966 , p. 584
  78. ↑ Knittle 1927 , pp. 154–155; Skrabec 2007 , p. 43
  79. 1 2 3 Lanmon & Palmer 1976b , p. 39
  80. 1 2 Oland 1973 , p. 272
  81. 1 2 Lanmon & Palmer 1976b , p. 41
  82. ↑ McKearin & McKearin 1966 , p. 116; Daniel 1949 , pp. 103–104; Knittle 1927 , p. 297
  83. ↑ Lanmon & Palmer 1976b , p. 42
  84. ↑ Lanmon & Palmer 1976b , p. 43
  85. 1 2 Weeks & United States Census Office 1884 , p. 83
  86. ↑ McKearin & McKearin 1966 , p. 129
  87. ↑ Madarasz, Historical Society of Western Pennsylvania & Senator John Heinz Pittsburgh Regional History Center 1998 , p. 20
  88. ↑ Weeks & United States Census Office 1884 , p. 82; Shotwell 2002 , p. 430
  89. ↑ McKearin & McKearin 1966 , p. 587
  90. ↑ Shotwell 2002 , p. 430
  91. ↑ Madarasz, Historical Society of Western Pennsylvania & Senator John Heinz Pittsburgh Regional History Center 1998 , p. 18
  92. ↑ Madarasz, Historical Society of Western Pennsylvania & Senator John Heinz Pittsburgh Regional History Center 1998 , p. 19
  93. ↑ Weeks & United States Census Office 1884 , p. 83; "Albert Gallatin & Co.: 1795-1803". Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh. Archived from the original on June 7, 2014. Retrieved August 7, 2014.
  94. ↑ Madarasz, Historical Society of Western Pennsylvania & Senator John Heinz Pittsburgh Regional History Center 1998 , pp. 18–19
  95. ↑ Weeks & United States Census Office 1884 , p. 82
  96. 1 2 McKearin & McKearin 1966 , p. 586
  97. ↑ "Albert Gallatin & Co.: 1795-1803". Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh. Archived from the original on June 7, 2014. Retrieved August 7, 2014.
  98. ↑ Daniel 1949 , pp. 100–101
  99. ↑ Daniel 1949 , p. 107
  100. ↑ "The Pitkin Glass Works 1783-1830". The Museum of Connecticut Glass. Archived from the original on December 15, 2023. Retrieved December 15, 2023.
  101. ↑ Knittle 1927 , pp. 192–193
  102. ↑ Knittle 1927 , pp. 193–194
  103. 1 2 "Bits of History From the Cottage Lawn Historical House". Cazenovia Republican (Newspaper Archive). July 16, 1964. p. 12. In 1783 David Goff and a company of men....
  104. ↑ Madison County Eagle (July 21, 2009). "Historical Glass Factories of Peterboro". Eagle News Online. Community Media Group, LLC. Archived from the original on December 15, 2023. Retrieved December 15, 2023.
  105. 1 2 McKearin & McKearin 1966 , p. 585
  106. 1 2 Huey 1980 , p. 37
  107. ↑ Huey 1980 , p. 38
  108. ↑ Huey 1980 , p. 39
  109. ↑ Huey 1980 , p. 42
  110. ↑ Huey 1980 , p. 43
  111. ↑ Huey 1980 , p. 44
  112. 1 2 McKearin & McKearin 1966 , p. 131
  113. ↑ McKearin & McKearin 1966 , pp. 584–587; Purvis 1999 , p. 107
  114. ↑ McKearin & McKearin 1966 , p. 584; Long, Liebeknecht & Tvaryanas 2008 , pp. 320–321
  115. ↑ Long, Liebeknecht & Tvaryanas 2008 , pp. 320–321
  116. ↑ Palmer 1979 , pp. 104–105
  117. ↑ Palmer 1979 , p. 105
  118. ↑ Palmer 1979 , p. 113
  119. ↑ Lanmon & Palmer 1976 , pp. 18–19
  120. ↑ Wall 1926 , p. 95
  121. ↑ McKearin & McKearin 1966 , p. 96
  122. ↑ McKearin & McKearin 1966 , pp. 97–98
  123. ↑ Wall 1926 , pp. 98–99
  124. 1 2 3 McKearin & McKearin 1966 , p. 98
  125. ↑ Hunter 1914 , p. 152
  126. ↑ McKearin & McKearin 1966 , p. 584; "Founders Online - From Benjamin Franklin to John Franklin, 27 September 1750". National Historical Publications and Records Commission, National Archives. Archived from the original on 16 December 2023. Retrieved November 30, 2023.
  127. ↑ McKearin & McKearin 1966 , p. 584; Knittle 1927 , pp. 103–106
  128. ↑ Starbuck 1983 , p. 46
  129. ↑ "Robert Hewes, Glass Manufacturer". Corning Museum of Glass. Archived from the original on December 5, 2023. Retrieved December 5, 2023.
  130. ↑ Starbuck 1983 , p. 47
  131. ↑ Frank 2003 , pp. 61–62
  132. ↑ Hunter 1914 , p. 144
  133. ↑ Knittle 1927 , p. 102
  134. 1 2 Skrabec 2011 , p. 19
  135. ↑ Skrabec 2011 , p. 18
  136. ↑ Skrabec 2011 , pp. 18, 20
  137. ↑ Tillotson 1920 , p. 354
  138. ↑ Shotwell 2002 , p. 444
  139. ↑ Skrabec 2011 , p. 24
  140. 1 2 3 United States 1853 , p. lxxi

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Venetian glass</span> Glassmaking tradition from Venice, Italy

Venetian glass is glassware made in Venice, typically on the island of Murano near the city. Traditionally it is made with a soda–lime "metal" and is typically elaborately decorated, with various "hot" glass-forming techniques, as well as gilding, enamel, or engraving. Production has been concentrated on the Venetian island of Murano since the 13th century. Today Murano is known for its art glass, but it has a long history of innovations in glassmaking in addition to its artistic fame—and was Europe's major center for luxury glass from the High Middle Ages to the Italian Renaissance. During the 15th century, Murano glassmakers created cristallo—which was almost transparent and considered the finest glass in the world. Murano glassmakers also developed a white-colored glass that looked like porcelain. They later became Europe's finest makers of mirrors.

Bakewell Glass is nineteenth-century glassware from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, produced by a company founded by Benjamin Bakewell. Bakewell's company can be found under the names ThePittsburgh Glass Manufactory, Bakewell & Page and, Bakewell, Pears & Co. Bakewell glass built a reputation of being both luxurious and utilitarian during the 80 years it was in business.

The Fostoria Glass Company was a manufacturer of pressed, blown and hand-molded glassware and tableware. It began operations in Fostoria, Ohio, on December 15, 1887, on land donated by the townspeople. The new company was formed by men from West Virginia who were experienced in the glassmaking business. They started their company in northwest Ohio to take advantage of newly discovered natural gas that was an ideal fuel for glassmaking. Numerous other businesses were also started in the area, and collectively they depleted the natural gas supply. Fuel shortages caused the company to move to Moundsville, West Virginia, in 1891.

Early American molded glass refers to glass functional and decorative objects, such as bottles and dishware, that were manufactured in the United States in the 19th century. The objects were produced by blowing molten glass into a mold, thereby causing the glass to assume the shape and pattern design of the mold. When a plunger rather than blowing is used, as became usual later, the glass is technically called pressed glass. Common blown molded tableware items bearing designs include salt dishes, sugar bowls, creamers, celery stands, decanters, and drinking glasses.

Novelty Glass Company of Fostoria was one of over 70 glass manufacturing companies that operated in northwest Ohio during the region's brief Gas Boom in the late 19th century. The company made bar goods, stemware, and novelties. Organization of the firm began late in 1890, with banker Rawson Crocker as president and veteran glass man Henry Crimmel as plant manager. Production started in February 1891. The plant was built on the site of the former Buttler Art Glass Company, which had been destroyed by fire in 1889.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hartford City Glass Company</span> American glass manufacturing company

Hartford City Glass Company was among the top three window glass manufacturers in the United States between 1890 and 1899, and continued to be one of the nation's largest after its acquisition. It was also the country's largest manufacturer of chipped glass, with capacity double that of its nearest competitor. The company's works was the first of eight glass plants that existed in Hartford City, Indiana during the Indiana Gas Boom. It became the city's largest manufacturer and employer, peaking with 600 employees.

Seneca Glass Company was a glass manufacturer that began in Fostoria, Ohio, in 1891. At one time it was the largest manufacturer of blown tumblers in the United States. The company was also known for its high-quality lead (crystal) stemware, which was hand-made for nearly a century. Customers included Eleanor Roosevelt and Lyndon B. Johnson, and retailers such as Marshall Field and Company, Neiman Marcus, and Tiffany's.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Early glassmaking in the United States</span> Glassmaking in the United States before the 18th century

Early glassmaking in the United States began in Colonial America in 1608 at the Colony of Virginia near Jamestown, believed to be the first industrial facility in what would later become the United States. For centuries, glassmaking procedures, techniques, and recipes were kept secret, with countries actively preventing glassmaking knowledge from spreading beyond their borders. German workers with glassmaking knowledge, described as Dutchmen, along with Polish glass workers, were brought to Colonial America to begin operations. Although glass was made at Jamestown, production was soon suspended because of strife in the colony. A second attempt at Jamestown also failed.

J. H. Hobbs, Brockunier and Company was one of the largest and best-known manufacturers of glass in the United States during the 19th century. Its products were distributed worldwide. The company is responsible for one of the greatest innovations in American glassmaking—an improved formula for lime glass that enabled American glass manufacturers to produce high-quality glass at a lower cost. The firm also developed talented glassmakers that started glass factories in Ohio and Indiana.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">John Frederick Amelung</span> German-American glass artist

John Frederick Amelung (1741–1798) was a German-American glass artist active in Maryland.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">New Geneva Glass Works</span>

The New Geneva Glass Works was an early American glass factory established in western Pennsylvania, active from 1797 until 1847.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wistarburg Glass Works</span> Glass factory

The Wistarburg Glass Works was the first successful glass factory and joint-venture enterprise in the Thirteen Colonies. Caspar Wistar founded the glass works company in 1739. He began by recruiting experienced glass artisans from Europe, and built homes for the workers along with a mansion for the factory's foreman. Wistar also had a company store built near the factory.

The Nickel Plate Glass Company was a manufacturer of tableware, lamps, and bar goods. It began operations in Fostoria, Ohio, on August 8, 1888, on land donated by the townspeople. The new company was formed by men from West Virginia who were experienced in the glassmaking business, and their company was incorporated in that state in February of the same year. They were lured to northwest Ohio to take advantage of newly discovered natural gas that was an ideal low-cost fuel for glassmaking. The company name came from the New York, Chicago and St. Louis Railroad, commonly known as the "Nickel Plate Road", which had tracks adjacent to the new glass plant.

The Fostoria Shade and Lamp Company was the largest manufacturer of glass lamps in the United States during the early 1890s. It began operations in Fostoria, Ohio, on May 17, 1890. The plant was run by Nicholas Kopp Jr., a former chemist at Hobbs, Brockunier and Company in West Virginia. Kopp achieved fame for his many glass designs and formulas for various colors of glass, and he is the discoverer of the American formula for selenium-based ruby glass. The company's products were very popular, and it was able to make significant profits early in its existence. In addition to lamps and shades for home lighting, the company also made novelties such as salt shakers.

Mambourg Glass Company was a window glass manufacturer that began production on October 26, 1887. The company was the first of thirteen glass manufacturers located in Fostoria, Ohio, in the United States, during northwest Ohio's gas boom. The plant was managed by Leopold Mambourg, a Belgian immigrant and experienced glassmaker. Much of the company's work force was also from Belgium. Former Ohio governor Charles Foster was president of the company and a major financial backer. He was also a major investor in other businesses and two additional Fostoria window glass companies: the Calcine Glass Company and the Crocker Glass Company. Mambourg was the chief operating officer for all three of Foster's window glass companies.

The Bellaire Goblet Company was the largest manufacturer of goblets in the United States during the 1880s. Its original glass plant was located in Bellaire, Ohio, which earned the nickname "Glass City" because of its many glass factories. Bellaire Goblet Company was part of Ohio's "Glass City" on the east side of the state, and later moved to the other side of the state to participate in Northwest Ohio's "Gas Boom". It also became part of a large glass trust.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">19th Century glassmaking innovations in the United States</span>

Very few 19th Century glassmaking innovations in the United States happened at the beginning of the century. Only ten glass manufacturers are thought to have been operating in 1800. High-quality glassware was imported from England, and glassmaking knowledge was kept secret. England controlled a key ingredient for producing high–quality glassware and kept its price high—making it difficult for American glass manufacturers to compete price-wise. European glassmakers with the knowledge to produce high–quality glassware were, in some cases, smuggled to the United States. Eventually the American glass industry grew, and the second half of the century saw numerous innovations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">19th century glass categories in the United States</span>

19th century glass categories in the United States include types of glass and decoration methods for glass. A simplified category version appropriate at the beginning of the century is glassware, bottles, and windows. As the century progressed, glass production became more complex and made necessary more categories and subcategories. An 1884 United States government report used glassware, bottles, windows, and plate glass as major categories—although plate glass accounted for only four percent of the value of all glass made.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">19th century glassmaking in the United States</span>

19th century glassmaking in the United States started slowly with less than a dozen glass factories operating. Much of the nation's better quality glass was imported, and English glassmakers had a monopoly on major ingredients for high–quality glass such as good–quality sand and red lead. A tariff and the War of 1812 added to the difficulties of making glass in America. After the war, English glassmakers began dumping low priced glassware in the United States, which caused some glass works to go out of business. A protective tariff and the ingenuity of Boston businessman Deming Jarves helped revive the domestic glass industry.

References

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.