The 20th century departures of foreign nationals from Egypt refers to the departure of foreign residents, primarily from European and Levantine communities. These communities consisting of British, French, Greeks, Italians, Armenians, Maltese and Jews of Egyptian descent had been established in Egypt since the 19th century. This group of foreign nationals became known as the "Egyptianized", or the Mutamassirun. [1] The foreign resident population in Egypt numbered around 200,000 by the end of World War 1. [1] This movement of foreign nationals leaving Egypt was precipitated by various factors such as political instability, the Suez Crisis, the abolition of the capitulations system, and the rise of Egyptian nationalism under Gamal Abdel Nasser. In 1956, Egyptian Minister of Interior Zakaria Mohieddin stated that of Egypt's 18,000 British and French citizens, 12,000 have been ordered to be expelled, with their properties seized by the Egyptian government. [2]
The movement of the Mutamassirun ("Egyptianized"), which included the British and French, and also Jews, Greeks, Italians, Syro-Lebanese, and Armenians, began after World War I. [3] According to Andrew Gorman, this was primarily a result of the "decolonization process and the rise of Egyptian nationalism". [4] [5] [6] Following the invasion of Egypt by Britain, France, and Israel in 1956, the new president Gamal Abdel Nasser enacted a set of sweeping regulations abolishing civil liberties while implementing targeted policies, allowing the state to stage mass arrests and strip away Egyptian citizenship from any group it desired. [7]
Population of Egypt, 1907–60 [2] | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1907 | 1917 | 1927 | 1937 | 1947 | 1960 | |
Egyptians | 11,189,978 | 12,512,106 | 13,952,264 | 15,734,170 | 18,966,767 | 25,984,101 |
European nationals | ||||||
Greeks | 62,973 | 56,731 | 76,264 | 68,559 | 57,427 | 47,673 |
Italians | 34,926 | 40,198 | 52,462 | 47,706 | 27,958 | 14,089 |
British/Maltese | 20,356 | 24,354 | 34,169 | 31,523 | 28,246 | 25,175 |
French | 14,591 | 21,270 | 24,332 | 18,821 | 9,717 | |
Others | 16,664 | |||||
Other Communities | ||||||
Jews | 38,635 | 58,581 | 63,550 | 62,953 | 65,639 | 8,561 |
Armenians | 7,747 | 12,854 | 17,145 | 16,886 | – | – |
Syrians, Palestinians, and other Arab nationalities | 33,947 | 31,725 | 39,605 | 38,692 | – | 56,375 |
Egyptian Greeks, often referred to as "Egyptiot Greeks" or simply "Egyptiots", were a prominent ethnic community in Egypt with roots dating back centuries. The exodus of Greeks from Egypt started before the coup d'état of 1952.
According to Al-Jazeera's documentary "Egypt: The Other Homeland," Greeks and Egyptians shared a connection rooted in their ancient civilizations. It was the Greeks who established the first cinemas, industries, and theaters in Egypt, and they introduced commodities like wine and cigarettes to Egyptian society. Flourishing Greek communities existed in cities such as Alexandria, Cairo, and Port Said. In the early 19th century, Greek immigrants to Egypt began cultivating the country's cotton industry, which significantly benefited the Egyptian economy. [8]
With the establishment of Gamal Abdel Nasser's new regime, the rise of Pan-Arab nationalism, and the subsequent nationalization of many industries in 1961 and 1963, thousands of Greek employees emigrated. [2] Initially, Nasser assured the Greeks that they would not be harmed by his new policies due to their demonstrated loyalty during the Suez Crisis. Greek volunteers joined the Egyptian Army against British and French troops, and large Greek elements were visible during protests throughout the country. The Greeks believed they would be exempt from the new procedures against foreigners, as promised by Nasser. However, between 1956 and 1960, Nasser reneged on his assurances, and Greeks were included in the measures targeting foreigners. With financial assistance from the Greek government, many Greeks began to leave. As a result, the Greek population in Egypt decreased by 80%. [8]
Many Greek schools, churches, small communities, and institutions subsequently closed, but many continue to function to this day. The Nasser regime saw a significant exodus of Greeks from Egypt, but most of the minority left the country either before or after the period 1952–1970. The Arab-Israeli war of 1967 contributed to the uprooting of the sizable Greek community in the Suez Canal cities, especially in Port Said. [2]
Despite their departure, the legacy of the Egyptian Greeks continues to endure through cultural institutions, traditions, and the memories of those who once called Egypt home. Many of them emigrated to Australia, the United States, Canada, South Africa, Western Europe, and Greece. The term "Egyptio Greeks" serves as a reminder of their hybrid identity and the bonds that once connected them to both Egypt and Greece.
The Italian presence in Egypt grew significantly in the early nineteenth century due to two main factors: the country's role as a refuge for Italian political exiles and the demand for workers during the modernization projects under Muhammad Ali and Isma'il. However, the Italian community in Egypt faced challenges during the mid-twentieth century. [9]
Beginning before the 1952 coup d'état, many Italians left Egypt gradually. The rise of Pan-Arab nationalism under Gamal Abdel Nasser and the subsequent nationalization of industries in the 1960s prompted thousands of Italian employees to emigrate, seeking better prospects elsewhere. [10]
Italian educational institutions, notably Salesian schools, underwent transformations that contributed to the departure of Italians from Egypt. Changes in state-level educational policies and the 'Egyptianization' strategy, aimed at integrating Egyptians into the workforce, limited opportunities for Italian expatriates. [10] By the early 1960s, over 40,000 Italians had left Egypt, mostly as "repatriates" or "national refugees," seeking refuge in Italy due to their ties to the country. [11]
The status of Egyptian Jews and their acquisition of Egyptian nationality have been subjects of debate, particularly regarding their motivations and the wider context of suspicion towards minorities, particularly Jews. Mahmud Abd al-Daher, in his work Yahu' d Mis' r, argues that around 49% of Egyptian Jews held Egyptian nationality in 1897, primarily as Ottoman subjects residing locally. During the 19th century, Jewish immigrants arrived in Egypt from various Mediterranean countries and Ottoman areas, contributing to the diverse community. [12]
Egyptian Company Law 138, promulgated in 1947, is cited as evidence that Egyptian Jews declared themselves 'Egyptian' only when their economic positions were challenged. This law facilitated the 'Egyptianization' process, aiming to ensure Egyptian control over the economy. [12] The diminishing public activities of Egyptian Jews after the Palestine War (1948) and the Israeli Lavon Affair (1954) further fueled skepticism towards them and their role in Egypt's economy. [13]
The Lavon Affair, also known as Operation Susannah, had far-reaching consequences for the Jewish community in Egypt and Israel's political landscape. The operation involved a clandestine plan by Israel's military intelligence branch, Aman, to carry out false-flag attacks in Egypt. The goal was to target Western and Egyptian institutions. [14] A small group of Egyptian Jews, trained in Israel and Egypt, were tasked with executing the attacks in the hopes of destabilising the regime of President Gamal Abdel Nasser and undermining relations between Egypt, the United States, and Britain. [15]
The operation commenced with bombings targeting post offices, a railway terminal, U.S. Information Agency libraries, and a British theater in Alexandria and Cairo. However, the Egyptian government became aware of the plan, leading to the arrest of the perpetrators. The failure of Operation Susannah shocked Israel's leaders, who were unwilling to accept responsibility for the activation of the sleeper cell. Due to the Israeli government's refusal to admit to the operation during the trial against them, the general Israeli population remained unaware, while the media depicted the trial as an unjust and anti-Semitic setup. [15] This situation, among other concerns, posed a significant threat to the safety of the more than 50,000 Jewish residents in Egypt. [16]
The complexity of Egyptian Jews' lives cannot be divorced from wider political events, such as the Palestine War of 1947-1948. Despite their contributions to Egyptian society, attitudes towards Egyptian Jews worsened over time, exacerbated by events like the Suez War and suspicions of involvement in Zionist activities. [17] Many Egyptian Jews faced increased insecurity and were arrested during the Suez War, leading to a significant decrease in their numbers in the years following the conflict. [12]
Reasons for migration among Egyptian Jews included discontent, incidents of property damage supported by nationalist and Islamist slogans, [17] and the worsening attitudes towards them following the Palestine War and the Lavon Affair. Despite their contributions to Egypt's economy and society, the deteriorating relationship between Egyptians and Egyptian Jews ultimately led to a significant decrease in the Jewish population in Egypt in the aftermath of the Suez War. [12]
Some 23,000—25,000 Jews out of 42,500 in Egypt left, [18] mainly for Israel, Western Europe, the United States, South America, and Australia. [19] Many were forced to sign declarations that they were voluntarily emigrating and agreed to the confiscation of their assets. Similar measures were enacted against British and French nationals in retaliation for the invasion. By 1957 the Jewish population of Egypt had fallen to 15,000. [20]
The Armenian community in Egypt boasts a rich and storied history, characterized by its distinct language, churches, and social institutions. Despite being a minority group, Armenians have made significant contributions to Egyptian society. However, the Armenian population in Egypt has experienced a decline over the years due to various factors, including migration to other countries and integration into broader Egyptian society. Extensive intermarriage with Muslims and Christians has also contributed to this decline. Today, the Armenian community in Egypt numbers around 6,000 individuals, significantly smaller than in previous generations. The majority of Armenians are concentrated in Cairo and Alexandria, the country's two largest cities. Economically, Egyptian Armenians have often pursued self-employment as businessmen or craftsmen and tend to have higher levels of education compared to the national average. [21]
Armenians first arrived in Egypt as asylum seekers following the Armenian genocide of 1915 in the Ottoman Empire. At their peak, Armenians in Egypt numbered around 60,000 individuals. However, the year 1961 marked a significant turning point when the Egyptian government nationalized many industries, dealing a decisive blow to Egyptians, including Armenians, who were heavily involved in economic activities. This led to a further decrease in the Armenian population in Egypt as many chose to emigrate in search of better opportunities elsewhere. [22]
A diaspora is a population that is scattered across regions which are separate from its geographic place of origin. The word is used in reference to people who identify with a specific geographic location, but currently reside elsewhere.
Gamal Abdel Nasser Hussein was an Egyptian military officer and politician who served as the second president of Egypt from 1954 until his death in 1970. Nasser led the Egyptian revolution of 1952 and introduced far-reaching land reforms the following year. Following a 1954 attempt on his life by a Muslim Brotherhood member, he cracked down on the organization, put President Mohamed Naguib under house arrest and assumed executive office. He was formally elected president in June 1956.
The Lavon affair was a failed Israeli covert operation, codenamed Operation Susannah, conducted in Egypt in the summer of 1954. As part of a false flag operation, a group of Egyptian Jews were recruited by Israeli military intelligence to plant bombs inside Egyptian-, American-, and British-owned civilian targets: cinemas, libraries, and American educational centers. The bombs were timed to detonate several hours after closing time. The attacks were to be blamed on the Muslim Brotherhood, Egyptian communists, "unspecified malcontents", or "local nationalists" with the aim of creating a climate of sufficient violence and instability to induce the British government to retain its occupying troops in Egypt's Suez Canal zone. The operation caused no casualties among the population, but resulted in the deaths of four operatives. The overseer of the operation allegedly informed the Egyptians, after which 11 suspected operatives were arrested. Two died by suicide after being captured, two were executed by the Egyptian authorities, two of them were acquitted at trial, and the remaining five received prison terms ranging from 7 years to life in prison.
The Suez Crisis or the Second Arab–Israeli War, also referred to as the Tripartite Aggression in the Arab world and as the Sinai War in Israel, was a British–French–Israeli invasion of Egypt in 1956. Israel invaded on 29 October, having done so with the primary objective of re-opening the Straits of Tiran and the Gulf of Aqaba as the recent tightening of the eight-year-long Egyptian blockade further prevented Israeli passage. After issuing a joint ultimatum for a ceasefire, the United Kingdom and France joined the Israelis on 5 November, seeking to depose Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser and regain control of the Suez Canal, which Nasser had earlier nationalised by transferring administrative control from the foreign-owned Suez Canal Company to Egypt's new government-owned Suez Canal Authority. Shortly after the invasion began, the three countries came under heavy political pressure from both the United States and the Soviet Union, as well as from the United Nations, eventually prompting their withdrawal from Egypt. Israel's four-month-long occupation of the Egyptian-occupied Gaza Strip and Egypt's Sinai Peninsula enabled it to attain freedom of navigation through the Straits of Tiran, but the Suez Canal itself was closed from October 1956 to March 1957. The Suez Crisis led to international humiliation for the British and the French in the wake of the Cold War, which established the Americans and the Soviets as the world's superpowers. It also strengthened Nasser's standing.
In the 20th century, approximately 900000 Jews migrated, fled, or were expelled from Muslim-majority countries throughout Africa and Asia. Primarily a consequence of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, the mass movement mainly transpired from 1948 to the early 1970s, with one final exodus of Iranian Jews occurring shortly after the Islamic Revolution in 1979–1980. An estimated 650000 (72%) of these Jews resettled in Israel.
Moshe Sharett was the second prime minister of Israel and the country’s first foreign minister. He signed the Israeli Declaration of Independence and was a principal negotiator in the cease-fire agreements that concluded the 1948 War of Independence. Beginning in 1933, he headed the political department of the Jewish Agency. He also founded the Jewish Brigade, which fought with the British Army during World War II.
This article lists expulsions, refugee crises and other forms of displacement that have affected Jews.
The Jewish diaspora or exile is the dispersion of Israelites or Jews out of their ancient ancestral homeland and their subsequent settlement in other parts of the globe.
Maghrebi Jews or North African Jews are an ethnic group of Jews who had traditionally lived in the Maghreb region of North Africa under Arab rule during the Middle Ages. Established Jewish communities had existed in North Africa long before the arrival of Sephardi Jews, expelled from Portugal and Spain. The term Musta'arabi was also used by medieval Jewish authors to refer to Jews who had traditionally lived in the Maghreb. Due to proximity, the term 'Maghrebi Jews' sometimes refers to Egyptian Jews as well, even though there are important cultural differences between the history of Egyptian and Maghrebi Jews. These Jews originating from North Africa constitute the second largest Jewish diaspora group.
Jewish ethnic divisions refer to many distinctive communities within the world's Jewish population. Although considered a self-identifying ethnicity, there are distinct ethnic subdivisions among Jews, most of which are primarily the result of geographic branching from an originating Israelite population, mixing with local communities, and subsequent independent evolutions.
The phenomenon of large-scale migration of Christians is the main reason why Christians' share of the population has been declining in many countries. Many Muslim countries have witnessed disproportionately high emigration rates among their Christian minorities for several generations. Today, most Middle Eastern people in the United States are Christians, and the majority of Arabs living outside the Arab World are Arab Christians.
Egyptian Jews constitute both one of the oldest and one of the youngest Jewish communities in the world. The historic core of the Jewish community in Egypt mainly consisted of Egyptian Arabic speaking Rabbanites and Karaites. Though Egypt had its own community of Egyptian Jews, after the Jewish expulsion from Spain more Sephardi and Karaite Jews began to migrate to Egypt, and then their numbers increased significantly with the growth of trading prospects after the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869. As a result, Jews from many territories of the Ottoman Empire as well as Italy and Greece started to settle in the main cities of Egypt, where they thrived. The Ashkenazi community, mainly confined to Cairo's Darb al-Barabira quarter, began to arrive in the aftermath of the waves of pogroms that hit Europe in the latter part of the 19th century.
The history of the Jews in Turkey covers the 2400 years that Jews have lived in what is now Turkey.
The history of the Jews in Sudan goes back to a small but vibrant community of Jews who lived there from about 1885 to around 1970. Most of the community left for Israel or Europe after anti-Semitic attacks began to spread against both the Jews in Israel and those still living in Sudan.
The Egyptian Greeks, also known as Egyptiotes or simply Greeks in Egypt, are the ethnic Greek community from Egypt that has existed from the Hellenistic period until the aftermath of the Egyptian coup d'état of 1952, when most were forced to leave.
Ethnic groups in the Middle East are ethnolinguistic groupings in the "transcontinental" region that is commonly a geopolitical term designating the intercontinental region comprising West Asia without the South Caucasus, and also comprising Egypt in North Africa. The Middle East has historically been a crossroad of different cultures and languages. Since the 1960s, the changes in political and economic factors have significantly altered the ethnic composition of groups in the region. While some ethnic groups have been present in the region for millennia, others have arrived fairly recently through immigration. The largest socioethnic groups in the region are Egyptians, Arabs, Turks, Persians, Kurds, and Azerbaijanis but there are dozens of other ethnic groups that have hundreds of thousands, and sometimes millions of members.
The history of Egypt under Gamal Abdel Nasser covers the period of Egyptian history from the Egyptian Revolution of 1952, of which Gamal Abdel Nasser was one of the two principal leaders, spanning Nasser's presidency of Egypt from 1956 to his death in 1970. Nasser's tenure as Egypt's leader heralded a new period of modernisation and socialist reform in Egypt, along with a staunch advocacy of pan-Arab nationalism, and developing world solidarity. His prestige in Egypt and throughout the Arab World soared in the wake of his nationalisation of the Suez Canal Company in 1956, and Egypt's political victory in the subsequent Suez Crisis, but was damaged badly by Israel's victory in the Six-Day War.
Arab nationalism is a political ideology asserting that Arabs constitute a single nation. As a traditional nationalist ideology, it promotes Arab culture and civilization, celebrates Arab history, the Arabic language and Arabic literature. It often also calls for unification of Arab society. It bases itself on the premise that the people of the Arab world — from the Atlantic Ocean to the Arabian Sea — constitute one nation bound together by a common identity: ethnicity, language, culture, history, geography, and politics.
Mutamaṣṣirūn refers to "Egyptianized" Europeans residing in Egypt, primarily during the 19th and 20th centuries.
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