Actinomucor elegans

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Actinomucor elegans
Actinomucor elegans 1.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Mucoromycota
Order: Mucorales
Family: Mucoraceae
Genus: Actinomucor
Species:
A. elegans
Binomial name
Actinomucor elegans
Synonyms

Actinomucor elegans meitauza(Y.K. Shih) R.Y. Zheng & X.Y. Liu 2005
Actinomucor taiwanensis S.C. Jong & G.F. Yuan 1985
Rhizopus chinensis chungyuenWai 1964
Actinomucor harzii(Berl. & De Toni) Rosemberg 1959
Actinomucor corymbosus palaestinus Rayss 1958
Actinomucor elegans elegans(Eidam) C.R. Benj. & Hesselt. 1957
Actinomucor corymbosus palaestinus Rayss 1945
Mucor meitauzaY.K. Shih 1937
Actinomucor corymbosus corymbosus Naumov 1935
Actinomucor corymbosus Naumov 1935
Mucor cunninghamelloidesPišpek 1929
Mucor repens(Bainier) Sacc. & Trotter 1912
Mucor botryoides minorC.N. Jensen 1912
Mucor botryoides Lendn. 1910
Mucor glomerula Lendn. 1908
Glomerula repens Bainier 1903
Actinomucor repens Schostak. 1898
Mucor harzii Berl. & De Toni 1888
Mucor elegans(Eidam) J. Schröt. 1886
Rhizopus elegans Eidam 1884
Mucor corymbosus Harz 1871

Actinomucor elegans was originally described by Schostakowitsch in Siberia in 1898 and reevaluated by Benjamin and Hesseltine in 1957. [1] Commonly found in soil [2] and used for the commercial production of tofu and other products made by soy fermentation. Its major identifying features are its spine-like projections on the sporangiophore [1] and its ribbon-like hyphal structure when found in the tissue of a host. [2]

Taxonomy

The Actinomucor genus has many shared similarities with the genus Mucor. The specific differences lie in the branched hyphae of Actinomucor that give rise to rhizoids and sporangiophores. In terms of its differences from other similar genera, the limited growth of hyphae and the variation in the structure of columella and sporangiophores give Actinomucor multiple differentiable characteristics to other genera. [1]

Morphology

Mycelial growths of A. elegans have a high number of rhizoids branching out of each individual growth. On portions of growth that lack opposite rhizoids, aseptate hyphal growths with clear sporangiophores that are found with extreme variability in length and width. These hyphal structures grow out in whorled structures with growth terminating in the development of sporangiophores. [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] The sporangia are oval to spherical in shape and 17–50 μm in diameter. The walls of the sporangia possess prominent spine-like projections, which is a major identifier of this specific fungus. [1] The coloration of colonies of this fungi is white to cream-colored with an abundance of aerial mycelium. Cultures allowed to develop for a longer period of time (greater than 48 hours) change to become yellowish to buff color with increased aerial mycelium development and tight interweaving of these mycelia. [1] When this fungus is found in a human host the structure is explained to be similar to the genus Mucor, but with unique ribbon-like hyphal structures and irregular branching and thickness. [2] [4] [5]

Human pathogen

Identified as an arising human fungal pathogen the recorded instances of mucormycosis due to A. elegans are limited to four cases. The invasion mechanisms found for A. elegans are through spore inhalation [3] or entry from ruptures in the skin. [5] This pathogen is highly-deadly when found in an immunocompromised individual, [4] and can develop into a serious infection for immunocompetent individuals as well. [3] Immunocompromised patients are affected worse by infection due to their immune system being unable to stop the germination of fungal spores resulting in there being no mechanism to slow the colonization once this pathogen is introduced. [4] In all cases involving immunocompromised individuals, the relatively large visible location of necrosis seemed to be the first indicator of an invasion. [1] [2] [3] [5] It is thought that these necrotic areas are indicative of the place on the body in which inoculation occurred. [2] A. elegans as a pathogen is categorized as a mucormycosis-causing fungus, and because of this, the current leading treatment for this type of pathogen is the removal of necrotic tissue in an effort to remove the fungal elements from the body. The severity of infection from A. elegans is due to its propensity for invasion of the vascular system and hematogenous dispersion ultimately leading to necrosis of tissue. To limit the suffering, discomfort, or expiration of a patient infected with this pathogen an early suspicion of this specific fungi needs to be established. Early identification is important as it limits the time for the fungi to colonize the host before doctors can gather infected tissue to isolate and culture the fungi to confirm its presence in the patient. Because of this pathogen’s relative rarity, the time required to correctly identify the pathogen is usually not rapid enough resulting in high mortality rates of individuals infected. [5]

Fermentation of food products

Tofu

Mold fermentation in the production of tofu utilizes A. elegans. Through fermentation, A. elegans breaks down large macromolecules and converts them into simple fatty acids, amino acids, or sugars resulting in increased digestibility for humans. Ultimately increasing the functional and nutritional properties of tofu. [6]

Sufu

Another use of A. elegans is for the fermentation processing of sufu pehtze. A. elegans is specifically proficient for the production because it possesses important enzymes for the fermentation process and results in nutritional improvements of the food. Specific enzymes that add marketable aspects to this product include glutaminase which increases palatability, and α-galactosidase [7] which reduces flatulence in people consuming the product. [8]

Debittering soy protein hydrolysates

Actinomucor elegans is utilized for its debittering ability as well. Protein hydrolysates, such as whey and casein protein mixes all utilize proteolytic enzyme treatment to achieve heightened nutritional value, but paired with these nutritional improvements commonly comes a bitter taste. The bitter taste results from the amount and structure of hydrophobic amino acids formed in peptides. When paired with alcalase, A. elegans results in increased hydrolysis of amino acids in protein hydrolysates. Specifically, this hydrolysis occurs by A. elegans acting as an exopeptidase increasing the rate of hydrolysis resulting in a decrease of bitterness. [9]

Plastic degradation

To combat the white pollution caused by worldwide plastic waste many biodegradable products are now made out of polylactic acids (PLA) or polybutylene adipate-co-terephthalate (PBAT). Lipases secreted by A. elegans were found to be the second most proficient at expediting the full breakdown of these compounds. When a coculture of the most proficient dissolver of these compounds  Pseudomonas mendocina and the second-most proficient A. elegans it resulted in a substantially higher degradation rate than either fungus could achieve individually. In the observed physical structure of this relationship, it was found that P. mendocina was attached to the mycelia of A. elegans. This synergy resulted in a higher degradation rate because A. elegans possesses a large hyphal network resulting in larger colonization of the molecule, which increased the number of colonization sites for P. mendocina resulting in the superior degrading of the molecule. From a biochemical standpoint, the degradation occurred because the lipases of A. elegans and the proteases of P. mendocina catalyzed the ester bonds of the PLA/PBAT molecules. This finding shows that there is an efficient added degradation mechanism available to be employed if products formed out of PBAT/PLA become more widespread lowering the chances for waste buildup and decreasing the harmful effect of plastics in the environment by having the ability for its full degradation to be done quickly. [10]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Zygomycota</span> Division or phylum of the kingdom Fungi

Zygomycota, or zygote fungi, is a former division or phylum of the kingdom Fungi. The members are now part of two phyla: the Mucoromycota and Zoopagomycota. Approximately 1060 species are known. They are mostly terrestrial in habitat, living in soil or on decaying plant or animal material. Some are parasites of plants, insects, and small animals, while others form symbiotic relationships with plants. Zygomycete hyphae may be coenocytic, forming septa only where gametes are formed or to wall off dead hyphae. Zygomycota is no longer recognised as it was not believed to be truly monophyletic.

<i>Aspergillus fumigatus</i> Species of fungus

Aspergillus fumigatus is a species of fungus in the genus Aspergillus, and is one of the most common Aspergillus species to cause disease in individuals with an immunodeficiency.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Zygomycosis</span> Medical condition

Zygomycosis is the broadest term to refer to infections caused by bread mold fungi of the zygomycota phylum. However, because zygomycota has been identified as polyphyletic, and is not included in modern fungal classification systems, the diseases that zygomycosis can refer to are better called by their specific names: mucormycosis, phycomycosis and basidiobolomycosis. These rare yet serious and potentially life-threatening fungal infections usually affect the face or oropharyngeal cavity. Zygomycosis type infections are most often caused by common fungi found in soil and decaying vegetation. While most individuals are exposed to the fungi on a regular basis, those with immune disorders (immunocompromised) are more prone to fungal infection. These types of infections are also common after natural disasters, such as tornadoes or earthquakes, where people have open wounds that have become filled with soil or vegetative matter.

<i>Rhizopus</i> Genus of fungi

Rhizopus is a genus of common saprophytic fungi on plants and specialized parasites on animals. They are found in a wide variety of organic substances, including "mature fruits and vegetables", jellies, syrups, leather, bread, peanuts, and tobacco. They are multicellular. Some Rhizopus species are opportunistic human pathogens that often cause fatal disease called mucormycosis. This widespread genus includes at least eight species.

Rhizopus arrhizus is a fungus of the family Mucoraceae, characterized by sporangiophores that arise from nodes at the point where the rhizoids are formed and by a hemispherical columella. It is the most common cause of mucormycosis in humans and occasionally infects other animals.

<i>Mortierella</i> Genus of fungi

Mortierella species are soil fungi belonging to the order Mortierellales within the subphylum Mortierellomycotina. The widespread genus contains about 85 species.

<i>Apophysomyces</i> Genus of fungi

Apophysomyces is a genus of filamentous fungi that are commonly found in soil and decaying vegetation. Species normally grow in tropical to subtropical regions.

<i>Aspergillus terreus</i> Species of fungus

Aspergillus terreus, also known as Aspergillus terrestris, is a fungus (mold) found worldwide in soil. Although thought to be strictly asexual until recently, A. terreus is now known to be capable of sexual reproduction. This saprotrophic fungus is prevalent in warmer climates such as tropical and subtropical regions. Aside from being located in soil, A. terreus has also been found in habitats such as decomposing vegetation and dust. A. terreus is commonly used in industry to produce important organic acids, such as itaconic acid and cis-aconitic acid, as well as enzymes, like xylanase. It was also the initial source for the drug mevinolin (lovastatin), a drug for lowering serum cholesterol.

<i>Mucor mucedo</i> Species of fungus

Mucor mucedo, commonly known as the common pinmould, is a fungal plant pathogen and member of the phylum Mucoromycota and the genus Mucor. Commonly found on soil, dung, water, plants and moist foods, Mucor mucedo is a saprotrophic fungus found world-wide with 85 known strains. It is often mistaken for Rhizopus rots on fruits due to similar mould growth shape and colour. Contrastingly, however, Mucor mucedo is found to grow on a wide range of stored grains and plants, including cucumber and tomato. Discovered in Italy in 1729 by P.A. Micheli and later noted by Carl Linnaeus in 1753 in the Species Plantarum, Mucor mucedo was originally classified as Mucor vulgaris by Micheli but later classified synonymous under name Mucor mucedo. The species was redescribed as Ascophora mucedo by H.J. Tode in 1790 but this type resided in a stoloniferous habitat and was later made the type of new genus Rhizopus.

<i>Mucor racemosus</i> Species of fungus

Mucor racemosus is a rapidly growing, weedy mould belonging to the division Mucoromycota. It is one of the earliest fungi to be grown in pure culture and was first isolated in 1886. It has a worldwide distribution and colonizes many habitats such as vegetational products, soil and houses. The fungus is mostly known for its ability to exhibit both filamentous and yeast-like morphologies, often referred to as dimorphism. Stark differences are seen in both forms and conditions of the environment heavily affect the phases of the M. racemosus. Like many fungi, it also reproduces both sexually and asexually. The dimorphic capacity of this species has been proposed as an important factor in its pathogenicity and has enhanced the industrial importance. This species is considered an opportunistic pathogen, generally limited to immunocompromised individuals. It also been associated with allergy and inflammations of facial sinuses. Its association with allergy has made it a common fungus used in allergen medical testing. Industrial use of the fungus is in the production of enzymes and the manufacture of certain dairy foods.

Saksenaea vasiformis is an infectious fungus associated with cutaneous or subcutaneous lesions following trauma. It causes opportunistic infections as the entry of the fungus is through open spaces of cutaneous barrier ranging in severity from mild to severe or fatal. It lives in soils worldwide, but is considered as a rare human pathogen since only 38 cases were reported as of 2012. Saksenaea vasiformis usually fails to sporulate on the routine culture media, creating a challenge for early diagnosis, which is essential for a good prognosis. Infections are usually treated using a combination of amphotericin B and surgery. Saksenaea vasiformis is one of the few fungi known to cause necrotizing fasciitis or "flesh-eating disease".

<i>Apophysomyces variabilis</i> Species of fungus

Apophysomyces variabilis is an emerging fungal pathogen that can cause serious and sometimes fatal infection in humans. This fungus is a soil-dwelling saprobe with tropical to subtropical distribution. It is a zygomycete that causes mucormycosis, an infection in humans brought about by fungi in the order Mucorales. Infectious cases have been reported globally in locations including the Americas, Southeast Asia, India, and Australia. Apophysomyces variabilis infections are not transmissible from person to person.

<i>Lichtheimia corymbifera</i> Species of fungus

Lichtheimia corymbifera is a thermophilic fungus in the phylum Zygomycota. It normally lives as a saprotrophic mold, but can also be an opportunistic pathogen known to cause pulmonary, CNS, rhinocerebral, or cutaneous infections in animals and humans with impaired immunity.

Allomyces macrogynus is a species of fungus in the family Blastocladiaceae. It was first described by mycologist Ralph Emerson in 1941 as a variety of Allomyces javanicus, and later given distinct species status in 1954. Its genome has been sequenced by the Broad Institute.

Cunninghamella bertholletiae is a species of zygomycetous fungi in the order Mucorales. It is found globally, with increased prevalence in Mediterranean and subtropical climates. It typically grows as a saprotroph and is found in a wide variety of substrates, including soil, fruits, vegetables, nuts, crops, and human and animal waste. Although infections are still rare, C. betholletiae is emerging as an opportunistic human pathogen, predominantly in immunocompromised people, leukemia patients, and people with uncontrolled diabetes. Cunninghamella bertholletiae infections are often highly invasive, and can be more difficult to treat with antifungal drugs than infections with other species of the Mucorales, making prompt and accurate recognition and diagnosis of mycoses caused by this fungus an important medical concern.

<i>Rhizopus oryzae</i> Species of fungus

Rhizopus oryzae is a filamentous heterothallic microfungus that occurs as a saprotroph in soil, dung, and rotting vegetation. This species is very similar to Rhizopus stolonifer, but it can be distinguished by its smaller sporangia and air-dispersed sporangiospores. It differs from R. oligosporus and R. microsporus by its larger columellae and sporangiospores. The many strains of R. oryzae produce a wide range of enzymes such as carbohydrate digesting enzymes and polymers along with a number of organic acids, ethanol and esters giving it useful properties within the food industries, bio-diesel production, and pharmaceutical industries. It is also an opportunistic pathogen of humans causing mucormycosis.

<i>Cunninghamella echinulata</i> Species of fungus

Cunninghamella echinulata is a fungal species in the genus Cunninghamella. It is an asexually reproducing fungus and a mesophile, preferring intermediate temperature ranges. C. echinulata is a common air contaminant, and is currently of interest to the biotechnology industry due to its ability to synthesize γ-linolenic acid as well as its capacity to bioconcentrate metals. This species is a soil saprotroph that forms rhizoids, preferring soils enriched in nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. It has been reported occasionally an agent of mucormycosis following the inhalation of fungal spores. Czapek's agar is a suitable growth medium for the propagation of C. echinulata.

<i>Rhizopus stolonifer</i> Species of fungus

Rhizopus stolonifer is commonly known as black bread mold. It is a member of Zygomycota and considered the most important species in the genus Rhizopus. It is one of the most common fungi in the world and has a global distribution although it is most commonly found in tropical and subtropical regions. It is a common agent of decomposition of stored foods. Like other members of the genus Rhizopus, R. stolonifer grows rapidly, mostly in indoor environments.

Microascus manginii is a filamentous fungal species in the genus Microascus. It produces both sexual (teleomorph) and asexual (anamorph) reproductive stages known as M. manginii and Scopulariopsis candida, respectively. Several synonyms appear in the literature because of taxonomic revisions and re-isolation of the species by different researchers. M. manginii is saprotrophic and commonly inhabits soil, indoor environments and decaying plant material. It is distinguishable from closely related species by its light colored and heart-shaped ascospores used for sexual reproduction. Scopulariopsis candida has been identified as the cause of some invasive infections, often in immunocompromised hosts, but is not considered a common human pathogen. There is concern about amphotericin B resistance in S. candida.

Lichtheimia ramosa is a saprotrophic zygomycete, typically found in soil or dead plant material. It is a thermotolerant fungus that has also been known to act as an opportunistic pathogen–infecting both humans and animals.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Khan, Zia U.; Ahmad, Suhail; Mokaddas, Eiman; Chandy, Rachel; Cano, Josep; Guarro, Josep (October 2008). "Actinomucor elegans var. kuwaitiensis isolated from the wound of a diabetic patient". Antonie van Leeuwenhoek. 94 (3): 343–352. doi:10.1007/s10482-008-9251-1. PMID   18496764.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Mahmud, Aneela; Lee, Richard; Munfus-McCray, Delicia; Kwiatkowski, Nicole; Subramanian, Aruna; Neofytos, Dennis; Carroll, Karen; Zhang, Sean X. (16 February 2012). "Actinomucor elegans as an Emerging Cause of Mucormycosis". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 50 (3): 1092–1095. doi: 10.1128/jcm.05338-11 . PMC   3295095 . PMID   22205785.
  3. 1 2 3 4 Davel, Graciela; Featherston, Patricia; Fernández, Anibal; Abrantes, Ruben; Canteros, Cristina; Rodero, Laura; Sztern, Carlos; Perrotta, Diego (February 2001). "Maxillary Sinusitis Caused by Actinomucor elegans". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 39 (2): 740–742. doi:10.1128/jcm.39.2.740-742.2001. PMC   87809 . PMID   11158140.
  4. 1 2 3 4 Dorin, J.; D’Aveni, M.; Debourgogne, A.; Cuenin, M.; Guillaso, M.; Rivier, A.; Gallet, P.; Lecoanet, G.; Machouart, M. (December 2017). "Update on Actinomucor elegans , a mucormycete infrequently detected in human specimens: how combined microbiological tools contribute efficiently to a more accurate medical care". International Journal of Medical Microbiology. 307 (8): 435–442. doi:10.1016/j.ijmm.2017.10.010. PMID   29108709.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 Tully, Charla C.; Romanelli, Anna M.; Sutton, Deanna A.; Wickes, Brian L.; Hospenthal, Duane R. (October 2009). "Fatal Actinomucor elegans var. kuwaitiensis Infection following Combat Trauma". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 47 (10): 3394–3399. doi:10.1128/JCM.00797-09. PMC   2756944 . PMID   19675213.
  6. ↑ Yin, Liqing; Zhang, Yongzhu; Wu, Han; Wang, Zhe; Dai, Yiqiang; Zhou, Jianzhong; Liu, Xiaoli; Dong, Mingsheng; Xia, Xiudong (November 2020). "Improvement of the phenolic content, antioxidant activity, and nutritional quality of tofu fermented with Actinomucor elegans". LWT. 133: 110087. doi:10.1016/j.lwt.2020.110087.
  7. ↑ Huang, Lu; Wang, Chenxi; Zhang, Yongzhu; Chen, Xiaohong; Huang, Zhihai; Xing, Guangliang; Dong, Mingsheng (May 2019). "Degradation of anti-nutritional factors and reduction of immunoreactivity of tempeh by co-fermentation with Rhizopus oligosporus RT -3 and Actinomucor elegans DCY -1". International Journal of Food Science & Technology. 54 (5): 1836–1848. doi:10.1111/ijfs.14085.
  8. ↑ Han, Bei-Zhong; Ma, Yong; Rombouts, Frans M; Robert Nout, M.J (May 2003). "Effects of temperature and relative humidity on growth and enzyme production by Actinomucor elegans and Rhizopus oligosporus during sufu pehtze preparation". Food Chemistry. 81 (1): 27–34. doi:10.1016/s0308-8146(02)00347-3.
  9. ↑ Li, Li; Yang, Zuo-Yi; Yang, Xiao-Qun; Zhang, Gui-He; Tang, Shu-Ze; Chen, Feng (January 2008). "Debittering effect of Actinomucor elegans peptidases on soybean protein hydrolysates". Journal of Industrial Microbiology & Biotechnology. 35 (1): 41–47. doi:10.1007/s10295-007-0264-y. PMID   17943333.
  10. ↑ Jia, Hao; Zhang, Min; Weng, Yunxuan; Li, Chengtao (February 2021). "Degradation of polylactic acid/polybutylene adipate-co-terephthalate by coculture of Pseudomonas mendocina and Actinomucor elegans". Journal of Hazardous Materials. 403: 123679. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.123679. PMID   33264878.
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