Angioplasty

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Angioplasty
Angioplasty-scheme.svg
Balloon angioplasty
ICD-9-CM 00.6, 36.0 39.50
MeSH D017130
LOINC 36760-7

Angioplasty, also known as balloon angioplasty and percutaneous transluminal angioplasty, is a minimally invasive endovascular procedure used to widen narrowed or obstructed arteries or veins, typically to treat arterial atherosclerosis. [1]

Contents

A deflated balloon attached to a catheter (a balloon catheter) is passed over a guide-wire into the narrowed vessel and then inflated to a fixed size. [1] The balloon forces expansion of the blood vessel and the surrounding muscular wall, allowing an improved blood flow. [1] A stent may be inserted at the time of ballooning to ensure the vessel remains open, and the balloon is then deflated and withdrawn. [2] Angioplasty has come to include all manner of vascular interventions that are typically performed percutaneously.

Uses and indications

Coronary angioplasty

A coronary angiogram (an X-ray with radio-opaque contrast in the coronary arteries) that shows the left coronary circulation. The distal left main coronary artery (LMCA) is in the left upper quadrant of the image. Its main branches (also visible) are the left circumflex artery (LCX), which courses top-to-bottom initially and then toward the centre-bottom, and the left anterior descending (LAD) artery, which courses from left-to-right on the image and then courses down the middle of the image to project underneath the distal LCX. The LAD, as is usual, has two large diagonal branches, which arise at the centre-top of the image and course toward the centre-right of the image. Ha1.jpg
A coronary angiogram (an X-ray with radio-opaque contrast in the coronary arteries) that shows the left coronary circulation. The distal left main coronary artery (LMCA) is in the left upper quadrant of the image. Its main branches (also visible) are the left circumflex artery (LCX), which courses top-to-bottom initially and then toward the centre-bottom, and the left anterior descending (LAD) artery, which courses from left-to-right on the image and then courses down the middle of the image to project underneath the distal LCX. The LAD, as is usual, has two large diagonal branches, which arise at the centre-top of the image and course toward the centre-right of the image.

A coronary angioplasty is a therapeutic procedure to treat the stenotic (narrowed) coronary arteries of the heart found in coronary heart disease. [1] These stenotic segments of the coronary arteries arise due to the buildup of cholesterol-laden plaques that form in a condition known as atherosclerosis. [3] A percutaneous coronary intervention, or coronary angioplasty with stenting, is a non-surgical procedure used to improve the blood flow to the heart. [1]

Coronary angioplasty is indicated for coronary artery diseases such as unstable angina, NSTEMI, STEMI and spontaneous coronary artery perforation. [1] Percutaneous coronary intervention for stable coronary disease has been shown to significantly relieve symptoms such as angina, or chest pain, thereby improving functional limitations and quality of life. [4]

Peripheral angioplasty

Peripheral angioplasty refers to the use of a balloon to open a blood vessel outside the coronary arteries. It is most commonly done to treat atherosclerotic narrowings of the abdomen, leg and renal arteries caused by peripheral artery disease. Often, peripheral angioplasty is used in conjunction with guide wire, peripheral stenting and an atherectomy. [5]

Chronic limb-threatening ischemia

Angioplasty can be used to treat advanced peripheral artery disease to relieve the claudication, or leg pain, that is classically associated with the condition. [6]

The bypass versus angioplasty in a study of severe ischemia of the leg investigated infrainguinal bypass surgery first compared to angioplasty first in select patients with severe lower limb ischemia who were candidates for either procedure. In this study, angioplasty was associated with less short term morbidity compared with bypass surgery; however, long term outcomes favor bypass surgery. [7]

Based on this study, the ACCF/AHA{clarify|Alphabet soup|date=January 2025}} guidelines recommend balloon angioplasty only for patients with a life expectancy of 2 years or less or those who do not have an autogenous vein available. For patients with a life expectancy greater than 2 of years life, or who have an autogenous vein, a bypass surgery could be performed first. [8]

Renal artery angioplasty

Renal artery stenosis is associated with hypertension and loss of renal function. [9] Atherosclerotic obstruction of the renal artery can be treated with angioplasty with or without stenting of the renal artery. [10] There is a weak recommendation for renal artery angioplasty in patients with renal artery stenosis and flash edema or congestive heart failure. [10]

Carotid angioplasty

Carotid artery stenosis can be treated with angioplasty and carotid stenting for patients at high risk for undergoing carotid endarterectomy. [11] Although carotid endarterectomy is typically preferred over carotid artery stenting, stenting is indicated in select patients with radiation-induced stenosis or a carotid lesion not suitable for surgery. [12]

Venous angioplasty

Angioplasty is used to treat venous stenosis affecting dialysis access, with drug-coated balloon angioplasty proving to have better 6 month and 12 month patency than conventional balloon angioplasty. [13] Angioplasty is occasionally used to treat residual subclavian vein stenosis following decompression surgery for thoracic outlet syndrome. [14] There is a weak recommendation for deep venous stenting to treat obstructive chronic venous disease. [15]

Contraindications

Angioplasty requires an access vessel, typically the femoral or radial artery or femoral vein, to permit access to the vascular system for the wires and catheters used. If no access vessel of sufficient size and quality is available, angioplasty is contraindicated. A small vessel diameter, the presence of posterior calcification, occlusion, hematoma, or an earlier placement of a bypass origin, may make access to the vascular system too difficult.[ citation needed ]

Percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty is contraindicated in patients with left main coronary artery disease, due to the risk of spasm of the left main coronary artery during the procedure. [16] It is also not recommended if there is less than 70% stenosis of the coronary arteries, as stenosis is not hemodynamically significant below this level. [16]

Technique

Balloon-tipped catheter. Balloon-Tipped Catheter.png
Balloon-tipped catheter.
Balloon inflated with stent Angioplasty - Balloon Inflated with Stent.png
Balloon inflated with stent
Diagram of a balloon catheter Balloon-catherter.png
Diagram of a balloon catheter

Access to the vascular system is typically gained percutaneously (through the skin, without a large surgical incision). An introducer sheath is inserted into the blood vessel via the Seldinger technique. [17] Fluoroscopic guidance uses magnetic resonance or X-ray fluoroscopy and radiopaque contrast dye to guide angled wires and catheters to the region of the body to be treated in real time. [18] Tapered guidewire is chosen for small occlusion, followed by intermediate type guidewires for tortuous arteries and difficulty passing through extremely narrow channels, and stiff wires for hard, dense, and blunt occlusions. [19]

To treat a narrowing in a blood vessel, a wire is passed through the stenosis in the vessel and a balloon on a catheter is passed over the wire and into the desired position. [20] The positioning is verified by fluoroscopy and the balloon is inflated using water mixed with contrast dye to 75 to 500 times normal blood pressure (6 to 20 atmospheres), with most coronary angioplasties requiring less than 10 atmospheres. [21] A stent may or may not also be placed.

At the conclusion of the procedure, the balloons, wires and catheters are removed and the vessel puncture site is treated either with direct pressure or a vascular closure device. [22]

Transradial artery access and transfemoral artery access are two techniques for percutaneous coronary intervention. [23] Transradial artery access is the technique of choice for management of acute coronary syndrome as it has significantly lower incidence of bleeding and vascular complications compared with the transfemoral artery approach. [23] It also has a mortality benefit for high risk patients with acute coronary syndrome and who are at high risk of bleeding. [23] Transradial artery access was also found to yield improved quality of life, as well as decreased healthcare costs and resources. [23]

Risks and complications

Relative to surgery, angioplasty is a lower-risk option for the treatment of the conditions for which it is used, but there are unique and potentially dangerous risks and complications associated with angioplasty:

Angioplasty may also provide a less durable treatment for atherosclerosis and be more prone to restenosis relative to vascular bypass or coronary artery bypass grafting. [28] Drug-eluting balloon angioplasty has significantly less restenosis, late lumen loss and target lesion revascularization at both short term and midterm follow-up compared to uncoated balloon angioplasty for femoropopliteal arterial occlusive disease. [29] Although angioplasty of the femoropopliteal artery with paclitaxel-coated stents and balloons significantly reduces rates of vessel restenosis and target lesion revascularization, it was also found to have increased risk of death. [30]

Adjunctive therapy

Rotational Atherectomy, or "rotablation", is a technique used to treat heavily calcified coronary artery lesions by ablating plaque with a diamond-encrusted burr rotating at high speeds. It improve vessel lumens for balloon dilation and stent implantation. While effective for complex cases like calcification of nodules and tortuous vessels, its use is limited by procedural complexity, lack of training, and a need for specialized equipment. High procedural success rates are reported, especially with skilled operators, but careful patient selection is crucial to minimize complications. Studies show RA's efficacy in comparison to alternative techniques, particularly for challenging lesions.

Atherectomy is an adjunctive therapy used for lesion preparation of calcified plaque before percutaneous coronary intervention. The goal of lesion preparation with atherectomy is to modify calcified plaque, which changes the lesion compliance and allows for adequate balloon and stent expansion in segments with heavily calcified lesions. [31]

Atherectomy techniques

Rotational Atherectomy

Rotational atherectomy modifies plaque through rotational ablation using a diamond-tipped burr that spins concentrically on the wire. This technique is particularly useful for heavily calcified lesions that are resistant to balloon angioplasty.

Orbital Atherectomy

Orbital atherectomy employs an [[eccentrically mounted diamond-coated crown that orbits within the vessel, sanding down calcified deposits. This method has a reduced risk of burr entrapment compared to rotational atherectomy.

Excimer Laser Coronary Angioplasty

Excimer laser coronary angioplasty uses pulsatile ultraviolet laser energy to precisely ablate plaque tissue. It is effective in modifying undilatable and uncrossable lesions, facilitating subsequent balloon angioplasty and stent deployment.

Atherectomy is a valuable adjunctive therapy for patients with coronary artery disease, particularly those with severely calcified lesions where traditional balloon angioplasty and stenting may be insufficient. Its success depends on the selection of appropriate devices and the operator’s expertise in managing the technical nuances to minimize complications. Studies have demonstrated that atherectomy can enhance procedural success rates and long-term outcomes in complex cases. However, further research and standardized protocols are needed to address challenges and expand its clinical applications effectively.

Recovery

After angioplasty, most patients are monitored overnight in the hospital, but if there are no complications, patients are sent home the following day. [26]

The catheter site is checked for bleeding and swelling and the heart rate and blood pressure are monitored to detect late rupture and hemorrhage. [26] Post-procedure protocol also involves monitoring urinary output, cardiac symptoms, pain and other signs of systemic problems. [26] Usually, patients receive medication that will relax them to protect the arteries against spasms. Patients are typically able to walk within two to six hours following the procedure and return to their normal routine by the following week. [32]

Angioplasty recovery consists of avoiding physical activity for several days after the procedure. Patients are advised to avoid heavy lifting and strenuous activities for a week. [33] [34] Patients will need to avoid physical stress or prolonged sport activities for a maximum of two weeks after a delicate balloon angioplasty. [35]

After the initial two week recovery phase, most angioplasty patients can begin to safely return to low-level exercise. A graduated exercise program is recommended whereby patients initially perform several short bouts of exercise each day, progressively increasing to one or two longer bouts of exercise. [36] As a precaution, all structured exercise should be cleared by a cardiologist before commencing. Exercise-based rehabilitation following percutaneous coronary intervention has shown improvement in recurrent angina, total exercise time, ST-segment decline, and maximum exercise tolerance. [37]

Patients who experience swelling, bleeding or pain at the insertion site, develop fever, feel faint or weak, notice a change in temperature or color in the arm or leg that was used or have shortness of breath or chest pain should immediately seek medical advice.

Patients with stents are usually prescribed dual antiplatelet therapy which consists of a P2Y12 inhibitor, such as clopidogrel, which is taken at the same time as acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin). [38] Dual antiplatelet therapy (DAPT) is recommended for 1 month following bare metal stent placement, for 3 months following a second generation drug-eluting stent placement, and for 6–12 months following a first generation drug-eluting stent placement. [1] Dual antiplatelet therapy's properties are intended to prevent blood clots; however, they increase the risk of bleeding, so it is important to consider each patient's preferences, cardiac conditions, and bleeding risk when determining the duration of its treatment. [38] Another important consideration is that concomitant use of clopidogrel and proton-pump inhibitors following coronary angiography is associated with significantly higher adverse cardiovascular complications such as major adverse cardiovascular events, stent thrombosis and myocardial infarction. [39]

History

Angioplasty was first described by the US interventional radiologist Charles Dotter in 1964. [40] Dotter pioneered modern medicine with the invention of angioplasty and the catheter-delivered stent, which were first used to treat peripheral arterial disease. On January 16, 1964, Dotter percutaneously dilated a tight, localized stenosis of the subsartorial artery in an 82-year-old woman with painful leg ischemia and gangrene who refused leg amputation. After successful dilation of the stenosis with a guide wire and coaxial Teflon catheters, the circulation returned to her leg. The dilated artery stayed open until her death from pneumonia two and a half years later. [41] Charles Dotter is commonly known as the "Father of Interventional Radiology" and was nominated for the Nobel Prize in medicine in 1978.

The first percutaneous coronary angioplasty on an awake patient was performed in Zurich by the German cardiologist Andreas Gruentzig on September 16, 1977. [42]

The first percutaneous coronary angioplasties in the United States were performed on the same day (March 1, 1978) by Simon H. Stertzer at Lenox Hill Hospital in New York and Richard K. Myler at St. Mary's Hospital in San Francisco. During the previous year, also at St. Mary's Hospital in San Francisco, Myler and Gruentzig had performed dilatations in the setting of bypass surgery to test the catheter concept before Gruentzig performed the first percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty in his catheterization lab in Zurich.

The initial form of angioplasty was 'plain old balloon angioplasty' without stenting, until the invention of bare metal stents in the mid-1980s to prevent the abrupt closure that sometimes occurred plain old balloon angioplasty. [1]

Bare metal stents were found to cause in-stent restenosis as a result of neointimal hyperplasia and stent thrombosis, which led to the invention of drug-eluting stents with anti-proliferative drugs to combat in-stent restenosis. [1]

The first coronary angioplasty with a drug delivery stent system was performed by Stertzer and Luis de la Fuente, at the Instituto Argentino de Diagnóstico y Tratamiento (English: Argentina Institute of Diagnosis and Treatment [43] ) in Buenos Aires, in 1999.

Ingemar Henry Lundquist invented the over-the-wire balloon catheter that is now used in the majority of angioplasty procedures in the world. [44]

A subset of angioplasty, known as excimer laser coronary angioplasty, uses excimer lasers to remove small amounts of tissue, including undilatable and uncrossable lesions, in the artery in order to allow the balloon to more effectively compress plaque into the artery walls. [45] Such work was first developed in 1984 following earlier work in 1980–1983, when Rangaswamy Srinivasan, Samuel Blum and James J. Wynne at IBM's T. J. Watson Research Center observed the effect of the ultraviolet excimer laser on biological materials. Intrigued, they investigated further, finding that the laser made clean, precise cuts that would be ideal for delicate surgeries. This resulted in a fundamental patent [46] and Srinivasan, Blum and Wynne were elected to the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 2002. In 2012, the team members were honored with National Medal of Technology and Innovation by the President Barack Obama for their work related to the excimer laser. [47] Robert Ginsburg deployed the first used of excimer laser coronary angioplasty in 1984 on a patient with severe stenosis of the deep femoral artery and a threatened limb. [48]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Angiography</span> Medical imaging technique

Angiography or arteriography is a medical imaging technique used to visualize the inside, or lumen, of blood vessels and organs of the body, with particular interest in the arteries, veins, and the heart chambers. Modern angiography is performed by injecting a radio-opaque contrast agent into the blood vessel and imaging using X-ray based techniques such as fluoroscopy. With time-of-flight (TOF) magnetic ressonance it is no longer necessary to use a contrast.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Interventional radiology</span> Medical subspecialty

Interventional radiology (IR) is a medical specialty that performs various minimally-invasive procedures using medical imaging guidance, such as x-ray fluoroscopy, computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, or ultrasound. IR performs both diagnostic and therapeutic procedures through very small incisions or body orifices. Diagnostic IR procedures are those intended to help make a diagnosis or guide further medical treatment, and include image-guided biopsy of a tumor or injection of an imaging contrast agent into a hollow structure, such as a blood vessel or a duct. By contrast, therapeutic IR procedures provide direct treatment—they include catheter-based medicine delivery, medical device placement, and angioplasty of narrowed structures.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coronary catheterization</span> Radiography of heart and blood vessels

A coronary catheterization is a minimally invasive procedure to access the coronary circulation and blood filled chambers of the heart using a catheter. It is performed for both diagnostic and interventional (treatment) purposes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vascular surgery</span> Medical specialty of the blood/lymph vessels

Vascular surgery is a surgical subspecialty in which vascular diseases involving the arteries, veins, or lymphatic vessels, are managed by medical therapy, minimally-invasive catheter procedures and surgical reconstruction. The specialty evolved from general and cardiovascular surgery where it refined the management of just the vessels, no longer treating the heart or other organs. Modern vascular surgery includes open surgery techniques, endovascular techniques and medical management of vascular diseases - unlike the parent specialities. The vascular surgeon is trained in the diagnosis and management of diseases affecting all parts of the vascular system excluding the coronaries and intracranial vasculature. Vascular surgeons also are called to assist other physicians to carry out surgery near vessels, or to salvage vascular injuries that include hemorrhage control, dissection, occlusion or simply for safe exposure of vascular structures.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Restenosis</span> Recurrence of stenosis, a narrowing of a blood vessel

Restenosis is the recurrence of stenosis, a narrowing of a blood vessel, leading to restricted blood flow. Restenosis usually pertains to an artery or other large blood vessel that has become narrowed, received treatment to clear the blockage, and subsequently become re-narrowed. This is usually restenosis of an artery, or other blood vessel, or possibly a vessel within an organ.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Interventional cardiology</span> Catheter-based treatment of structural heart diseases

Interventional cardiology is a branch of cardiology that deals specifically with the catheter based treatment of structural heart diseases. Andreas Gruentzig is considered the father of interventional cardiology after the development of angioplasty by interventional radiologist Charles Dotter.

Intravascular ultrasound (IVUS) or intravascular echocardiography is a medical imaging methodology using a specially designed catheter with a miniaturized ultrasound probe attached to the distal end of the catheter. The proximal end of the catheter is attached to computerized ultrasound equipment. It allows the application of ultrasound technology, such as piezoelectric transducer or CMUT, to see from inside blood vessels out through the surrounding blood column, visualizing the endothelium of blood vessels.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Percutaneous coronary intervention</span> Medical techniques used to manage coronary occlusion

Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) is a minimally invasive non-surgical procedure used to treat narrowing of the coronary arteries of the heart found in coronary artery disease. The procedure is used to place and deploy coronary stents, a permanent wire-meshed tube, to open narrowed coronary arteries. PCI is considered 'non-surgical' as it uses a small hole in a peripheral artery (leg/arm) to gain access to the arterial system; an equivalent surgical procedure would involve the opening of the chest wall to gain access to the heart area. The term 'coronary angioplasty with stent' is synonymous with PCI. The procedure visualises the blood vessels via fluoroscopic imaging and contrast dyes. PCI is performed by an interventional cardiologists in a catheterization laboratory setting.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fibromuscular dysplasia</span> Human arterial disease

Fibromuscular dysplasia (FMD) is a non-atherosclerotic, non-inflammatory disease of the blood vessels that causes abnormal growth within the wall of an artery. FMD has been found in nearly every arterial bed in the body, although the most commonly affected are the renal and carotid arteries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vascular disease</span> Medical condition

Vascular disease is a class of diseases of the vessels of the circulatory system in the body, including blood vessels – the arteries and veins, and the lymphatic vessels. Vascular disease is a subgroup of cardiovascular disease. Disorders in this vast network of blood and lymph vessels can cause a range of health problems that can sometimes become severe, and fatal. Coronary heart disease for example, is the leading cause of death for men and women in the United States.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Drug-eluting stent</span> Medical implant

A drug-eluting stent (DES) is a tube made of a mesh-like material used to treat narrowed arteries in medical procedures both mechanically and pharmacologically. A DES is inserted into a narrowed artery using a delivery catheter usually inserted through a larger artery in the groin or wrist. The stent assembly has the DES mechanism attached towards the front of the stent, and usually is composed of the collapsed stent over a collapsed polymeric balloon mechanism, the balloon mechanism is inflated and used to expand the meshed stent once in position. The stent expands, embedding into the occluded artery wall, keeping the artery open, thereby improving blood flow. The mesh design allows for stent expansion and also for new healthy vessel endothelial cells to grow through and around it, securing it in place.

A cutting balloon is an angioplasty device invented by Barath et al. used in percutaneous coronary interventions. It has a special balloon tip with small blades, that are activated when the balloon is inflated. This procedure is different from Rotoblation whereby a diamond tipped device spins at high revolutions to cut away calcific (chalky) atheroma usually prior to coronary stenting. Boston Scientific's Flextome is the most widely used cutting balloon.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carotid stenting</span> Medical intervention

Carotid artery stenting is an endovascular procedure where a stent is deployed within the lumen of the carotid artery to treat narrowing of the carotid artery and decrease the risk of stroke. It is used to treat narrowing of the carotid artery in high-risk patients, when carotid endarterectomy is considered too risky.

The history of invasive and interventional cardiology is complex, with multiple groups working independently on similar technologies. Invasive and interventional cardiology is currently closely associated with cardiologists, though the development and most of its early research and procedures were performed by diagnostic and interventional radiologists.

Fractional flow reserve (FFR) is a diagnostic technique used in coronary catheterization. FFR measures pressure differences across a coronary artery stenosis to determine the likelihood that the stenosis impedes oxygen delivery to the heart muscle.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Atherectomy</span> Surgical removal of atherosclerosis from the walls of arteries

Atherectomy is a minimally invasive technique for removing atherosclerosis from blood vessels within the body. It is an alternative to angioplasty for the treatment of peripheral artery disease, but the studies that exist are not adequate to determine whether it is superior to angioplasty. It has also been used to treat coronary artery disease, albeit without evidence of superiority to angioplasty.

Transradial catheterization is an endovascular procedure or catheterization procedure performed to diagnose and treat arterial disease. Endovascular procedure can be performed achieving access in to body’s arterial system from either femoral artery, brachial artery or radial artery in the wrist. The transfemoral approach to perform cardiac catheterization has typically been more prevalent in invasive cardiology. But radial access has gained popularity due to technical advances with catheters and lower complication rates than transfemoral access. The European Society of Cardiology and the American Heart Association both support a radial-first approach in acute coronary syndrome.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Purshotam Lal</span> Indian cardiologist

Purshotam Lal is an Indian Interventional cardiologist who has to his credit the pioneering of over 20 interventional cardiology procedures for the first time in India, some of which were the first time in the World. Trained in UK, US and Germany, and he has held various faculty positions including Professor, Advisor, etc.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ulrich Sigwart</span>

Ulrich Sigwart is a German retired cardiologist known for his pioneering role in the conception and clinical use of stents to keep blood vessels open, and introducing a non-surgical intervention, alcohol septal ablation for the treatment of hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy.

Alfredo E. Rodríguez is an Argentine interventional cardiologist, clinical researcher, and author. He is the Chief of Interventional Cardiology Service at Otamendi Hospital and Director and Founder of the Cardiovascular Research Center (CECI) a non -profit Research Organization in Buenos Aires Argentina.

References

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