Argiope argentata

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Argiope argentata
A.argentata02.jpg
Female in California (dorsal side)
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Subphylum: Chelicerata
Class: Arachnida
Order: Araneae
Infraorder: Araneomorphae
Family: Araneidae
Genus: Argiope
Species:
A. argentata
Binomial name
Argiope argentata
(Fabricius, 1775) [1]
Synonyms [1]
  • Aranea argentataFabricius, 1775
  • Aranea mammeataDe Geer, 1778
  • Aranea mammataOlivier, 1789
  • Epeira mammata(Olivier, 1789)
  • Argyopes argentatus(Fabricius, 1775)
  • Argyopes fenestrinusC. L. Koch, 1838
  • Epeira argentata(Fabricius, 1775)
  • Epeira amictoriaWalckenaer, 1841
  • Plectana sloaniiWalckenaer, 1841
  • Epeira gracilisKeyserling, 1865
  • Argiope carinataL. Koch, 1871
  • Argyopes maronicusTaczanowski, 1873
  • Argyopes subtilisTaczanowski, 1873
  • Acrosoma sloanii(Walckenaer, 1841)
  • Argyopes hirtusTaczanowski, 1879
  • Argiope waughiSimon, 1896
  • Araneus gracilis(Keyserling, 1865)
  • Micrathena sloaneiPetrunkevitch, 1911
  • Gea panamensisChamberlin, 1917
  • Argiope argyreaBadcock, 1932
  • Argiope cuyuniiHingston, 1932
  • Argiope filiargentataHingston, 1932
  • Argiope filinfractaHingston, 1932
  • Micrathena sloaniMello-Leitão, 1932
  • Singa gracilis(Keyserling, 1865)
  • Aranea gracilentaRoewer, 1942
  • Argiope indistinctaMello-Leitão, 1944
  • Argiope hirta(Taczanowski, 1879)

Argiope argentata, commonly known as the silver argiope or silver garden spider due to the silvery color of its cephalothorax, is a member of the orb-weaver spider family Araneidae. This species resides in arid and warm environments in North America, Central America, the Caribbean and widely across South America. In the United States, it is found at least in Southern California, Florida, Arizona, and Texas. A. argentata create stabilimenta and a unique zig-zag in its web design, and it utilizes its UV-reflecting silk to attract pollinating species to prey upon. Like other species of Argiope, its venom is not harmful to humans; however, it can be employed to immobilize its prey. A. argentata engages in sexual cannibalism either mid- or post-copulation. One aspect of particular interest regarding this species is its extinction patterns, which notably have minimal correlation with its population size but rather occur sporadically for the species.

Contents

Description

Argiope argentata belongs to the genus Argiope. As with all Argiope, there is notable sexual dimorphism in regards to size, with the male being much smaller than the female. [2] The average size of the female A. argentata is 12 millimeters, which is three times the size of the average male. [3] UV-light reflects off of the top surface of their bodies. This UV-reflectance may serve the same purpose as the UV-silk used to spin their webs: to attract pollinating prey by imitating the characteristics of flowers. The under-area of A. argentata has a dark-brown coloring, with a yellow stripe going across it. [4] A. argentata has two sets of eyes: a primary set and a secondary set. [5]

Habitat and distribution

Argiope argentata are native to areas of Southern California. It is also found southwards as far as Argentina and Chile. [6] As a spider that is attracted to dry and humid environments, it thrives on the prickly-pear plants of Southern California. This spider is not typically found in Europe, or in places with seasons that involve cooler temperatures. This spider is relatively abundant in its specified areas and can oftentimes be found with little effort. Argiope argentata are commonly seen and photographed by hikers in Southern California and the Andes Mountains.

Hunting and diet

Hunting

Argiope argentata follows a distinct sequence of steps when capturing, killing, and ultimately eating its prey. The first step is localization of the prey, for which the spider’s vibration receptors are critical. The second step is immobilization of the prey which involves two steps: wrapping and biting. The second step consists of either a long or short bite depending on the type of prey. The third step is transportation, which involves carrying the prey back to where the spider was alarmed of its presence. In the fourth and final step before feeding, the spider manipulates the orientation of the prey so that it is in the proper positioning for the spider to consume. [7]

The determining bite length is an important component of prey immobilization. It is determined by the spider by momentarily touching the prey before biting. This contact allows the spider to determine in some manner what the prey is, and what its immobilization will entail. [7]

Biting prey

Argiope argentata exhibits two different forms of biting to its prey, which are differentiated by the duration of the bite: the short bite versus the long bite. For Lepidoptera, i.e. moths and butterflies, A. argentata performs a long bite, in contrast to the short bite given to other insects. Another juxtaposition between these two methods of predation, is that the long bite is executed before the prey is wrapped in silk, whereas the short bite is executed after. One hypothesis for the difference in bite duration is that the long bite utilizes the spider's venom to immobilize the prey, whereas the short bite is unnecessary because the prey has already been immobilized by the silk wrapping. [7]

Since the short bite is given after the prey has been immobilized by other tactics, a separate hypothesis for its purpose has been proposed. For starters, the venomous content in this bite is likely to be slim to none. Since the prey is already immobilized and dead, venom is not necessary and would be a waste of the A. argentata's predatorial resources. Rather, this short bite may serve as a quote-on-quote "taste-tester" for the spider. This "taste-tester" supposedly gives the A. argentata sufficient information on the prey it has caught to determine whether or not it is consumable. [7]

Diet

Argiope argentata eats butterflies and moths, both of which require a long bite upon first encounter. This is contrary to other insects that are immediately wrapped in silk. [7] It also preys upon mosquitoes, grasshoppers, and flies. [8]

The species incorporates UV-reflecting silks into its web design which serve as an attractor to their prey. These patterns have been hypothesized to specifically attract prey that engage in pollination. Flowers incorporate UV-reflecting patterns to ensure their pollination by insects. Since the webs of A. argentata have been shown to capture pollinating species, such as Trigona spinipes , a species of bees, it is sound logic that their UV-reflecting silk serves the same purpose obtained by a flower's UV-reflecting patterns.

Webs and silk

Webs

Like other members of Argiope, silver argiopes often spin stabilimenta into their webs. [9] These often take the form of zigzag lines, [9] and frequently there are four of them [9] forming a centerless "X" shape near the center of the web; the spider then rests in the very middle, with four pairs of legs each drawn together and splayed out in an "X" shape more or less aligned with the stabilimentum "X".

Decorations

There are multiple hypotheses regarding the reasoning behind A. argentata web decorations. Evidence shows that in part this web-decoration is utilized to attract prey. Further hypotheses center on the idea that the UV reflective capabilities of the web divert and deter birds from crashing into it. Thus, A. argentata might be able to save itself the resources and energy needed to rebuild its web. Despite hypotheses that the web is also used in part as a defense measure against predators, evidence shows that the decorations can also attract them. This is supported by the statistical analysis of degree of web decoration in association with survival rate. High degrees of decoration correlate to a lower survival rate than moderate to minimal degrees of decoration. [10]

Silks

Argiope argentata is in the family Araneidae, otherwise known as orb-weavers. [6] Like other orb-weavers, A. argentata has seven distinct silks, five of which are fibrous. These silks differ in many ways including the silk gland they are ejected from, their mechanical properties, and their protein composition. Four of the fibrous silks, aciniform, major ampullate, minor ampullate, and tubiliform, are considered dry silks, and the remaining fibrous silk, capture spiral, is considered a wet silk. [11]

Reproduction

Sexual cannibalism

Argiope argentata spider engages in sexual cannibalism, during or after copulation, without fail. The act of sexual cannibalism amongst A. argentata has been looked at more closely in the laboratory with virgin females. Upon the first attempt at mating, the female spider thrusts the male spider off of her, which results in his death more than two-thirds of the time. Males that survive, bravely try again, this time with success, only to be met with immediate cannibalism after the act of insemination is completed. [12]

Plugging

As a consequence of post-coital cannibalism, males generally have a single chance at successful mating. As an evolutionary strategy to ensure gene propagation, they engage in "plugging", in which the male breaks off its copulatory organ, securing it into the female, thus preventing future insemination by rivals. [12]

Behavior

Grooming

Argiope argentata engages in grooming behavior post prey capture. The duration and intensity of this grooming behavior has a specific connection to the type of prey that was captured. The spider deliberately grooms the tarsal region on each of its eight legs, which is hypothesized to be due to the ability of these structures to respond to chemical changes using chemosensory organs. There is no evidence that A. argentata extends this grooming behavior to the rest of its body. [13]

Defecating

The act of defecation occurs most frequently after biting the prey or feeding on it, and is a very calculated process. A. argentata consciously widens the space between its abdomen and its web before defecating, to ensure that the web itself is not soiled. A. argentata’s anus is positioned away from the web, so that the defecation itself will be excreted away from the web. [13]

Drinking

Argiope argentata is found to receive its water supply from the web’s surface. The web is able to capture and hold droplets of water for A. argentata to drink. It appears that this is the supplier of water for the spider, regardless of the presence and degree of other environmental conditions. For example, the spider is not reliant on the humidity of the air or the water content of the prey. [13]

Enemies

Female silver argiope (bottom-left), with dewdrop spider (top-right, also with silver abdomen) living in its web, in Southern California Argiope argentata female with dewdrop spider living in its web in California (cropped).jpg
Female silver argiope (bottom-left), with dewdrop spider (top-right, also with silver abdomen) living in its web, in Southern California

Predators

Lizards are significant predators of A. argentata, as can be seen by the so-called "lizard effect". That is, within island habitats, there is a negative correlation between the number of lizard inhabitants and the number of A. argentata. Other predators include wasps and birds. [14]

Parasites

As skilled web designers and catchers of prey, Argiope argentata are frequently the target of food theft by other species. Dewdrop spiders (genus Argyrodes) are small kleptoparasitic or commensal spiders that can often be found living in the webs of A. argentata, where they feed on insects trapped by their host's web. [9] Due to silver argiopes' poor vision, these intruders are usually able to escape detection and consequences for their trespass and thievery.[ citation needed ]

Conservation

Argiope argentata is not currently an endangered species. These spiders are relatively abundant across a variety of different habitats. Because Argiope argentata can be found across different countries, there are currently no unified efforts to promote the conservation of either the species or the land on which they reside. As has been relatively commonplace, conservation efforts for most natural habitats (including that of Argiope argentata) revolve around reducing greenhouse gas emissions, recycling, and reducing pollution. These efforts will not only sustain the habitats of spiders, but those of countless other species who might be harmed by human action. Argiope argentata are very important for the conservation of certain environments. According to information gathered from the St. Louis Zoo, these spiders help keep insect and pest numbers down as they consume thousands of pounds of them per year. This helps to preserve certain crops and plant life without the need of harmful pesticides.

Extinction patterns

Argiope argentata lacks a strong relationship between population size and persistence rates, which results in its high likelihood of sudden extinction regardless of its current population size. The four month long developmental time for A. argentata spiderlings opens the species up to a higher risk of deviation or disturbance in its normal population size. [15] One hypothesis provided for these rampant cycles of extinction and regeneration, is that this constant fluctuation in population size leads to an inevitable outcome possibly hitting zero. [16]

Human bites

Argiope argentata are relatively harmless to human beings. If thoroughly and intentionally provoked, these spiders might bite out of self defense. Their venom is not toxic to humans and rarely causes any sort of adverse reactions. In fact, the bites of Argiope argentata are relatively comparable to a bee sting - with only minor redness and occasional swelling resulting. Despite being relatively harmless to humans, the bites of A. argentata can prove deadly to smaller animals such as insects and rodents. They are effective ways for the spiders to kill their prey once they have been immobilized.

Related Research Articles

<i>Argiope</i> (spider) Genus of spiders

The genus Argiope includes rather large spiders that often have a strikingly coloured abdomen. These spiders are distributed throughout the world. Most countries in tropical or temperate climates host one or more species that are similar in appearance. The etymology of Argiope is from a Latin word argentum meaning silver. The carapace of Argiope species is typically covered in silvery hairs, and when crawling in the sun, they reflect it in a way that gives them a metallic, white appearance.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Orb-weaver spider</span> Family of spiders

Orb-weaver spiders are members of the spider family Araneidae. They are the most common group of builders of spiral wheel-shaped webs often found in gardens, fields, and forests. The English word "orb" can mean "circular", hence the English name of the group. Araneids have eight similar eyes, hairy or spiny legs, and no stridulating organs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stabilimentum</span> Conspicuous, usually zig-zagged, silk structure in some orb-weaver spider webs

A stabilimentum, also known as a web decoration, is a conspicuous silk structure included in the webs of some species of orb-web spider. Its function is a subject of debate.

<i>Argiope keyserlingi</i> St Andrews cross spider

Argiope keyserlingi is a species of orb-web spider found on the east coast of Australia, from Victoria to northern Queensland. It is very similar in appearance to a closely related north Queensland species, Argiope aetherea. A. keyserlingi is commonly found in large populations in suburban parks and gardens, particularly among the leaves of Lomandra longifolia. Like many species of orb-web spider, A. keyserlingi shows considerable sexual dimorphism, as the females are many times larger than the males. Mature females can be seen during the summer, and seeing multiple males on the web of one female is not uncommon.

<i>Argiope picta</i> Species of spider

Argiope picta is a species of orb web spider found in tropical areas of Queensland, Australia and Papua New Guinea up to the Moluccas. This species is similar in size to the sympatric Argiope aetherea; females can be distinguished from those of A. aetherea via extensive differences in abdominal colouration and patterns. The males of these two species are almost indistinguishable.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Argiope bruennichi</span> Species of orb-weaver spider.

Argiope bruennichi is a species of orb-web spiders distributed throughout Central and Northern Europe, North Africa, parts of Asia, and the Azores archipelago. Like many other members of the genus Argiope, it has strikingly yellow and black markings on its abdomen.

<i>Argiope aurantia</i> Species of spider

Argiope aurantia is a species of spider, commonly known as the yellow garden spider, black and yellow garden spider, golden garden spider, writing spider, zigzag spider, zipper spider, black and yellow argiope, corn spider, Steeler spider, or McKinley spider. The species was first described by Hippolyte Lucas in 1833. It is common to the contiguous United States, Hawaii, southern Canada, Mexico, and Central America. It has distinctive yellow and black markings on the abdomen and a mostly white cephalothorax. Its scientific Latin name translates to "gilded silver-face". The body length of males range from 5–9 mm (0.20–0.35 in); females range from 19–28 mm (0.75–1.10 in). These spiders may bite if disturbed or harassed, but the venom is harmless to non-allergic humans, roughly equivalent to a bumblebee sting in intensity.

Spider behavior refers to the range of behaviors and activities performed by spiders. Spiders are air-breathing arthropods that have eight legs and chelicerae with fangs that inject venom. They are the largest order of arachnids and rank seventh in total species diversity among all other groups of organisms which is reflected in their large diversity of behavior.

<i>Argiope appensa</i> Species of spider

Argiope appensa, also referred to as the Hawaiian garden spider or banana spider, is an orb-weaving spider belonging to the family Araneidae.

<i>Larinioides sclopetarius</i> Species of spider

Larinioides sclopetarius, commonly called bridge-spider or gray cross-spider, is a relatively large orb-weaver spider with Holarctic distribution. These spiders originated in Europe, have been observed as south as the Mediterranean Coast and as north as Finland, and have been introduced to North America. They are often found on bridges, especially near light and over water. The species tends to live on steel objects and is seldom seen on vegetation. Females reach a body length of 10–14mm, and males 8–9mm. Their orb webs can have diameters of up to 70 cm.

<i>Gasteracantha fornicata</i> Species of spider

Gasteracantha fornicata is a species of spiny orb-weavers found in Queensland Australia. It is similar in shape to Austracantha minax which was originally described as Gasteracantha minax. It was described by Johan Christian Fabricius in 1775, the first Australian species of spider to be named and classified.

<i>Argiope trifasciata</i> Banded garden spider

Argiope trifasciata is a species of spider native to North and South America, but now found around the world. It can be found in certain areas of Europe, namely the Iberian Peninsula, the Canary Islands, and Madeira. The similar looking Argiope bruennichi is common in the Azores. They typically begin to appear during autumn from early September to late October as temperatures start dropping.

<i>Argiope submaronica</i> Species of spider

Argiope submaronica is a species of spider in the family Araneidae (orb-weavers), found from Mexico to Bolivia, and in Brazil. The name was at one time considered a synonym of Argiope argentata, but A. submaronica is now treated as a separate species. It has also been known under the synonym Argiope savignyi.

<i>Argiope aemula</i> Species of spider

Argiope aemula, commonly known as the oval St Andrew's cross spider, is a species of spider in the family Araneidae which is native to southeast Asia, found from India and Sri Lanka to the Philippines, Indonesia, and Vanuatu. It is one of the giant, conspicuous "signature spider" species of the genus Argiope, observed in tropical and subtropical grasslands.

<i>Cyclosa argenteoalba</i> Species of spider

Cyclosa argenteoalba, in the trashline orbweavers genus, is a species of orb weaver in the spider family Araneidae. It is found in East Asia in the countries of China, Japan, and Korea. C. argenteoalba are diurnal, which means they are active during the day. Each individual has a unique appearance due to their differences in the ratio of black to silver coloring on their abdomen. Spiders with less silver coloring are better at catching prey, since the silver is bright and warns their prey. They catch their prey by waiting in the hub of their web until their prey is close enough to catch. Parasitic larvae are often found attached to C. argenteoalba, and the larvae are able to manipulate the spider's behavior. Females are on average 2 mm longer in size than males. During mating, female genital mutilation is common in order to increase the fitness of the male. On their webs, they often attach silk "decorations" that are thought to deter predators. Relocating to a different place to build a new web occurs frequently until they find a location with a significant amount of prey.

<i>Argyrodes elevatus</i> Species of spider

Argyrodes elevatus, commonly referred to as dew-drop spider, is part of the family Theridiidae that consists of more than 3,000 species. These spiders are most commonly found in subtropical and tropical regions in South and Central America, as well as southern regions of the United States. One of the key distinguishing characteristics of A. elevatus is its kleptoparasitic behavior through which it primarily procures food for survival. Typically 1 or 2 A. elevatus spiders preside in outer areas of webs built by other species of spiders, although it is possible for up to 45 spiders. There are two main mechanisms by which A. elevatus raid the hub of the host's web to steal insects preyed and wrapped by the host spider. A. elevatus follows an intricate course to the hub of the web to search for prey, using vibrational detection enhanced by laid out threads along the web to find and capture the insect. These spiders are highly efficient, with the theft lasting a maximum of 12 seconds and high success rates. This reliance on a host spider for food has led to adaptations in sleep schedules and alternate food sources to revolve around the host species activity. A. elevatus display a unique courtship routine in which male A. elevatus presents prey wrapped in silk as a nuptial gift to the female spider. The male spider approaches the female, carrying the nuptial gift on its chelicerae while communicating with a distinct courting vibration, followed by copulation. Approximately twenty-four hours after the A. elevatus courtship and copulation series of events, the female spider will lay one to two eggs on the outer regions of the host's web.

<i>Cyclosa turbinata</i> Species of spider

Cyclosa turbinata is a species of orb weaver belonging to the family of spiders known as Araneidae. It is found in a range from the United States to Panama, West Indies, Galapagos Islands, and has been introduced into Hawaii.

<i>Micrathena mitrata</i> Species of spider

Micrathena mitrata, the white micrathena, is a species of orb weaver in the spider family Araneidae. It is found in a range from the United States to Brazil. The spider has a distinctive appearance with a shiny, black abdomen and spiky, yellowish-brown legs. Its body length ranges from 4 to 9 mm in females and 3 to 4 mm in males. The species is known for its elaborate web, which it uses to capture insects for food. Despite its fearsome appearance, Micrathena mitrata is not considered dangerous to humans and is generally regarded as a harmless spider.

<i>Argiope radon</i> Species of spider

Argiope radon is a species of orb web spider native to Australia. It is found in tropical areas of the Northern Territory, Western Australia and Queensland. It is commonly known as the Northern St Andrew's cross spider.

<i>Argiope versicolor</i> Species of spider

Argiope versicolor, the multi-coloured Saint Andrew's cross spider, is a species of orb-weaver spider found mostly in Southeast Asia, from China to Indonesia.

References

  1. 1 2 "Taxon details Argiope argentata (Fabricius, 1775)". World Spider Catalog. Natural History Museum Bern. Retrieved 2016-05-08.
  2. ↑ Levi, H. W. (1983). The Orb-Weaver Genera Argiope, Gea, and Neogea from the Western Pacific Region (Araneae: Araneidae, Argiopinae). Harvard University: MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. p. 253.
  3. ↑ Bartlett, Troy. "Species Argiope argentata - Silver Argiope". bugguide.net. Retrieved 2020-10-20.
  4. ↑ Craig, C. L.; Ebert, K. (1994). "Colour and Pattern in Predator–Prey Interactions: The Bright Body Colours and Patterns of a Tropical Orb-Spinning Spider Attract Flower-Seeking Prey". Functional Ecology. 8 (5): 616–620. doi:10.2307/2389923. ISSN   0269-8463. JSTOR   2389923.
  5. ↑ Tiedemann, Klaus B.; Ventura, Dora Fix; Ades, Cesar (1986). "Spectral Sensitivities of the Eyes of the Orb Web Spider Argiope argentata (Fabricius)". The Journal of Arachnology. 14 (1): 71–78. ISSN   0161-8202. JSTOR   3705553.
  6. 1 2 Natural History Museum Bern. "NMBE - World Spider Catalog". wsc.nmbe.ch. Retrieved 2020-10-20.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 Robinson, Michael H. (1969). "Predatory Behavior of Argiope argentata (Fabricius)". American Zoologist. 9 (1): 161–173. doi: 10.1093/icb/9.1.161 . ISSN   0003-1569. JSTOR   3881502.
  8. ↑ "Argiope argentata (Silver Argiope Spider)" (PDF). Sta.uwi.edu. Retrieved 16 March 2022.
  9. 1 2 3 4 Berrian, Jim (2012-01-04). "SDNHM: Silver Argiope spider (Argiope argentata)". Archived from the original on 2012-01-04. Retrieved 2020-10-20.
  10. ↑ Craig, C. L.; Wolf, S. G.; Davis, J. L. D.; Hauber, M. E.; Maas, J. L. (2001). "Signal polymorphism in the web-decorating spider Argiope argentata is correlated with reduced survivorship and the presence of stingless bees, its primary prey". Evolution. 55 (5): 986–993. doi:10.1554/0014-3820(2001)055[0986:SPITWD]2.0.CO;2. ISSN   0014-3820. PMID   11430658. S2CID   12369806.
  11. ↑ Blackledge, Todd A.; Hayashi, Cheryl Y. (2006-07-01). "Silken toolkits: biomechanics of silk fibers spun by the orb web spider Argiope argentata (Fabricius 1775)". Journal of Experimental Biology. 209 (13): 2452–2461. doi:10.1242/jeb.02275. ISSN   0022-0949. PMID   16788028.
  12. 1 2 Ghione, Soledad; Costa, Fernando G. (2011). "Female attack is not necessary for male copulatory organ breakage in the sexually cannibalistic spider Argiope argentata (Araneae: Araneidae)". The Journal of Arachnology. 39 (1): 197–200. doi:10.1636/Hi10-92.1. ISSN   0161-8202. JSTOR   23048804. S2CID   86211649.
  13. 1 2 3 Robinson, Michael H.; Olazarri, José (1971). "Units of behavior and complex sequences in the predatory behavior of Argiope argentata (Fabricius): (Araneae: Araneidae)". Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology (65): 1. doi:10.5479/si.00810282.65. ISSN   0081-0282.
  14. ↑ Schoener, Thomas W.; Spiller, David A. (1992). "Stabilimenta Characteristics of the Spider Argiope argentata on Small Islands: Support of the Predator-Defense Hypothesis". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 31 (5): 309–318. doi:10.1007/BF00177771. ISSN   0340-5443. JSTOR   4600756. S2CID   21897162.
  15. ↑ Schoener, Thomas W.; Clobert, Jean; Legendre, Stéphane; Spiller, David A. (November 2003). "Life‐History Models of Extinction: A Test with Island Spiders". The American Naturalist. 162 (5): 558–573. doi:10.1086/378693. ISSN   0003-0147. PMID   14618535. S2CID   17108554.
  16. ↑ Schoener, Thomas W.; Spiller, David A. (1992). "Is Extinction Rate Related to Temporal Variability in Population Size? An Empirical Answer for Orb Spiders". The American Naturalist. 139 (6): 1176–1207. doi:10.1086/285381. ISSN   0003-0147. JSTOR   2462336. S2CID   85395724.
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