On the day of the murder, King George I was in Thessaloniki, recently conquered from the Ottomans by his son, Crown Prince Constantine. After 50 years of reign, the king, feeling frail, planned to abdicate during his upcoming golden jubilee in October. In the afternoon, the king took his daily walk in the city streets, with minimal protection, as he did in Athens throughout his reign. At around 5:15 p.m. near the White Tower, Alexandros Schinas shot him with a revolver. King George I was rushed to the hospital but died before arrival. To avoid inciting Greek resentment towards Thessaloniki, a city largely populated by Slavs, authorities denied any political motive for the regicide, attributing it to Schinas, described as an alcoholic and mentally unstable individual. Schinas was arrested by the Hellenic Gendarmerie, placed in custody, and interrogated, but he died from defenestration on May 6, 1913.
After being repatriated on the royal yacht Amphitrite[el] to the Greek capital, the king's body, surrounded by Greek and Danish flags, was placed in the cathedral of Athens and publicly displayed for three days before being buried in the gardens of the royal palace of Tatoi. Constantine I succeeded his father on the eve of World War I, marking the beginning of a period of great instability for Greece and the Crown. Overthrown and replaced by his second son, Alexander, after only four years of reign, Constantine went into exile and only regained his throne in 1920. He was forced to abdicate permanently in 1922, this time in favor of his eldest son, George II, following Greece's defeat in the Greco-Turkish War.
The Greek armed forces entering Thessaloniki (1912).
The early victories of the First Balkan War caused divisions among the allies over the spoils, particularly the port of Thessaloniki (the second largest city in the Ottoman Balkans after Constantinople), the capital from a geographical and economic perspective. In early November, Greek forces entered the city before their Bulgarian allies. Constantine led the army through the city and accepted the surrender of the Ottomans at the Government House. The Greeks celebrated the city's liberation with joy. George I and Venizelos rushed to Thessaloniki to support Greece's claims and organize a victory celebration for the king's upcoming golden jubilee. The liberation of Thessaloniki was followed by the recapture of Ioannina, another Greek city held by the Ottomans, during the Battle of Bizani in early March 1913.[13][14][15][16][17]
When he was assassinated on March 18, 1913, George I had been reigning for almost 50 years. He was a popular king who embraced the "Great Idea" more than ever during his reign and reached the peak of his prestige after the victory in Thessaloniki.[18]
Eager to leverage his popularity to solidify his dynasty, George I decided to abdicate in favor of his son, Crown PrinceConstantine. During his stay in Thessaloniki, the king announced to his family his intention to step down on his upcoming golden jubilee in October. He cited his declining vigor as the reason for his decision and believed that Constantine, with his ideal age and stature, was ready to take over the throne.[19][20]
On March 18, 1913, King George I took his usual afternoon walk in the streets of Thessaloniki with his aide-de-camp, Ioannis Frangoudis. He moved around almost unprotected, just as he had done in Athens since the beginning of his reign. Despite advice from his advisors, the king preferred minimal protection, only allowing two gendarmeries to follow at a distance. They strolled near the White Tower and discussed the king's upcoming visit to the German battlecruiserGoeben.[4][21][22][23][24] However, as they reached the corner of Vasilissis Olgas and Agia Triada streets, they were unexpectedly approached by Alexandros Schinas, a presumed Greek anarchist, around 43 years old.[25]
At around 5:15pm,[Note 1] Schinas shot the king point-blank in the back with a revolver.[15][21][22][26][27] According to The New York Times, Schinas had concealed himself and quickly approached to shoot the king.[25] Another account depicts him emerging from a Turkish café named Pasha Liman, intoxicated and disheveled, and firing at Georges I as he walked by.[4][28] The bullet struck the king's heart, leading to his collapse. The monarch was then transported by carriage to the nearest military hospital,[29] but he succumbed to his injuries before arrival, at the age of 67.[30]
The New York Times reported George I's last words: "Tomorrow, when I make my official visit to the battleship Goeben, it is the fact that a German battleship honors a Greek king here in Salonica that will fill me with happiness and satisfaction."[31] However, the king's biographer, Captain Walter Christmas, reports his last words as follows: "Thank God, Christmas can now finish his work with a chapter to the glory of Greece, the Crown Prince, and the army."[32][Note 2]
Alexandros Schinas does not attempt to escape and is immediately apprehended by Ioannis Frangoudis.[26][32] Additional gendarmes quickly arrive from a nearby police station. Schinas reportedly asked the officers to protect him from the surrounding crowd.[34] Prince Nicolas, George I's third son, is quickly informed of the event and rushes to the hospital.[35] As the only member of the royal family present in Thessaloniki,[35] he is the one who informs the new monarch of their father's death.[36] Indeed, Crown Prince Constantine is in Epirus at the time, commanding the army that has just taken Ioannina, with his brother, Prince Christopher.[29][35]
Immediately after the assassination, Greece refused to attribute a political motive to Schinas' act.[21] Aware that the assassination of the king in a city largely populated by Slavs could reignite tensions with Bulgaria, the Greek authorities targeted some Muslim and Jewish residents of Thessaloniki whom they held responsible.[37] To pacify public opinion, the government eventually announced that the killer was Greek, describing Alexandros Schinas as a person of "low intelligence," a "degenerate criminal," and a "victim of alcoholism."[38] This "official narrative" became the widely accepted portrayal of Schinas, depicting him as an alcoholic and homeless, with his motivation for the assassination of the king attributed to mental illness rather than political reasons.[27][34][39][40] The authorities then attempted to suggest that he was an agent acting on behalf of a foreign power (Bulgaria, Germany, or the Ottoman Empire) without providing any evidence to support their claims.[41]
The news of George I's death deeply shocked Greece. In Athens, newspapers were printed with black borders and carried eulogistic articles about the late monarch.[42] All ministers expressed their condolences to Queen Olga, the widow of George I. She was in Athens when her husband was assassinated, and it was her son Andrew, daughter-in-law Alice, and grandson George who broke the news to her.[Note 3] On March 19, the day after the king's assassination, all public establishments were closed, flags were flown at half-mast, cannon shots were fired at regular intervals to signify the national day of mourning, and death bells tolled.[42] Meanwhile, in Athens, Eleftherios Venizelos announced before Parliament the accession to the throne of Crown PrinceConstantine.[42]
The New York Times headline reporting the assassination of George I (March 19, 1913).
In the hours and days following the news, the new King Constantine I received condolence telegrams from monarchs and heads of state worldwide. In Berlin, Emperor Wilhelm II decreed a three-week court mourning, and all officers of the Imperial Navy observed an eight-day mourning period.[42] In London, George I's death deeply affected Dowager Queen Alexandra, sister of the late monarch, who fainted immediately. The English-language press noted the successive deaths that have affected the queen since the death of King Edward VII in 1910.[Note 4][42] In Brussels, the court mourned for twenty-one days,[45] while in Paris, President of the Republic Raymond Poincaré and Prime Minister Aristide Briand sent telegrams of condolence to Constantine I.[46] The French press unanimously condemned the attack. In the columns of Le Figaro, the day after the assassination of the King of the Hellenes, journalist Georges Bourdon wrote: "The death of this rare sovereign is a great loss for Greece, which will not be alone in feeling bitterness. Throughout the world, she has friends who, in her sorrow, mingle their mourning."[47][Note 5]
The government of Greece initially denies any political motive for the regicide, but during an interview in prison, a journalist asks Alexandros Schinas, "Are you an anarchist?" Schinas responds:[54]
"No, no! I am not an anarchist, but a socialist. I embraced socialism while studying medicine in Athens. It happened gradually, almost imperceptibly. I believe that all good and educated individuals are socialists. To me, the philosophy of medicine is intertwined with socialism."
Other theories about the reasons for the assassination have emerged. Some suggest that it was a revenge act against the king, who allegedly refused a government aid request from Schinas in 1911. Another theory is that Schinas lost a significant inheritance on the Greek stock market, and he was in poor health and discouraged before the attack.[55][56] An article in The New York Times in 1914, discussing recent political assassinations, does not mention Schinas among the "anarchists who believe in militant tactics." However, it describes the assassin of George I as "a Greek named Alexandros Schinas who was probably half demented."[57]
Alexandros Schinas himself attributes his actions to "delusions" caused by tuberculosis:[54]
"At night, I would wake up feeling like I was losing my mind. I had an overwhelming desire to destroy the world and harm everyone because I saw society as my enemy. It was purely coincidental that I encountered the king in this disturbed state of mind. If I had come across my sister that day, I would have been willing to harm her as well."
Tortured and subjected to examinations during his detention,[15][34] Alexandros Schinas refuses to name any accomplices.[34][56] According to the Greek newspaper I Kathimerini, he informed Queen Olga in a private meeting that he acted alone.[58] The newspaper also mentions that Schinas made statements after his arrest, but unfortunately, the transcriptions were lost in a fire on the ship transporting them to Piraeus.[58] In a prison interview, Schinas also denies any premeditation.[Note 7][54]
On May 6, 1913, six weeks after his arrest, Alexandros Schinas died by throwing himself out of the window of the examining magistrate's office at the Thessaloniki gendarmerie.[53][54][59] Authorities claimed that Schinas, who was not handcuffed, took advantage of a moment of distraction from his guards to run and jump out the window, falling nine meters. Some speculate that Schinas committed suicide to avoid further torture and a slow death from tuberculosis, while others suggest he may have been thrown out the window by the gendarmes to silence him.[4][15][22][34][39][60] Following his death, his ear and hand were amputated for identification purposes, preserved, and later exhibited at the Athens Museum of Criminology.[34]
In the 21st century, Schinas is often portrayed as an anarchist driven by political motives.[21][22][26][56] However, in 2014, Michael Newton provided a more nuanced perspective, highlighting the torture Schinas endured during his detention, which led to a "confused confession blending anarchist beliefs with a claim of regicide due to a financial dispute."[15] Similarly, in 2018, Michael Kemp questioned Schinas's association with anarchism or propaganda of the deed,[61] noting that the terms "socialism" and "anarchism" were used interchangeably at the time. Reports of Schinas seeking government assistance or investing in the stock market do not align with theories of his socialist or anarchist leanings.[62][Note 8] Kemp suggests that Schinas, rather than being part of a larger political or state conspiracy, may have been a troubled individual seeking to escape the harsh realities of the early 20th century, both mentally and physically unwell.[63]
After the attack, the body of the sovereign was embalmed and placed in a small room near the hospital entrance.[42][46] On the evening of the assassination, the body was transferred from the hospital to the palace. George I's remains were covered with the Greek flag and placed on a stretcher, carried alternately by Prince Nicolas, the king's aides-de-camp, senior officers, civilian, and religious authorities. The procession passed by the site of the assassination before arriving at the palace at 10pm. A battalion paid respects, and the body was placed in a salon on the mezzanine. The Metropolis of Thessaloniki, Gennadios Alexiadis, offered a prayer, followed by civilian and military authorities silently passing by the monarch's coffin.[42][46]
The king's body is brought back to Athens on his yacht, the Amphitrite[el], accompanied by a flotilla of warships.[64] The repatriation of the royal remains occurred on March 25, 1913, and is marked by a significant ceremony in Thessaloniki. Starting from the palace at 9am, the procession, with traditional evzones forming the special guard of the deceased monarch, proceeds to the port amidst a large and solemn crowd. The coffin, draped in the national flag with the crown placed at the head, is carried on a cannon carriage. Following the coffin is the royal family, with the princes and the new king themselves carrying the body onto the Amphitrite at the port. On the royal yacht, the Metropolitan delivers a speech honoring a king "fallen in the line of duty." The Amphitrite then sails to Piraeus, accompanied by three Greek destroyers, the Russian gunboatUralets[ru], the German battlecruiserGoeben, the British cruiserYarmouth, the French cruiser Bruix, and the Italian cruiser San Giorgio.[65][66]
Delayed by fog, the Amphitrite arrived in Athens on March 27 just before noon. The high dignitaries of the court and the kingdom awaited the ship at the dock to pay their respects to the monarch's remains. As the coffin was disembarked, the batteries fired salvos. George I's body, as in Thessaloniki, was placed on a cannon carriage and pulled by Greek sailors. Constantine I followed the coffin, preceded by the Holy Synod. The procession included princes, the Lutheranminister, ministers, foreign consuls, and civilian and military authorities. Queens Olga, the widow of George I, and Sophia, the wife of Constantine, along with the princesses of the royal family, followed in carriages.[65]
At the train station, the sovereign's body is placed in a mortuary car painted white with mauve side bands. As the special train departs for the capital, cannons from foreign ships anchored in Piraeus, along with Greek batteries, fire salute rounds.[65] In Athens, the procession moves through a massive crowd to the Cathedral of the Annunciation. Following a religious ceremony, the coffin, adorned with the flags of Greece and Denmark (the countries of George I's birth), is placed in a chapel and publicly displayed for three days.[65][67]
George I's funeral (1913).
The solemn funeral of King George I took place on April 2, 1913, in Athens, before a massive crowd. The Cathedral of the Annunciation was heavily adorned with funeral wreaths. The royal coffin rested in front of the altar on a small platform draped in violet, with six aides-de-camp of the king guarding it.[68] Among the foreign guests were notable figures such as the Crown Prince of Romania, the Crown Prince of Bulgaria, Prince Henry of Prussia, the Crown Prince of Serbia, Prince Alexander of Teck, Prince Valdemar of Denmark, Prince Roland Bonaparte, the Infant Charles of Spain, Grand Duke Dmitri Constantinovich of Russia, the Duke of Cumberland, and the Count of Turin.[69] After the religious ceremony, the procession headed to the Larissa station, where a special train would return George I's body to the Tatoi Royal Palace. The coffin was once again placed on a cannon carriage and pulled by a detachment of sailors.[68] It was followed on foot by clergy members, the king, Greek and foreign princes, and several carriages.[Note 9] The monarch's body was then buried in the gardens of the Tatoi Palace, a place George I particularly loved.[67][68][69][70]
Constantine I had a different personality from his father, George I, and his opposition to Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos caused political difficulties. Constantine lacked training in state affairs, leading to disastrous consequences during World War I.[73] The conflict between Constantine I and Venizelos resulted in the National Schism,[74] a civil conflict that some historians believe could have been avoided if George I had not been assassinated by Alexandros Schinas.[10][39][75][76] Constantine I was forced to abdicate in 1917 after Allied forces threatened to bombard Athens. He passed the throne to his second son, Alexander I, and moved to Switzerland with his wife Sophia and their other children. Following Alexander I's unexpected death, Constantine returned to power after Venizelos's defeat in the 1920 legislative elections and a plebiscite. However, Greece's military failure in the Greco-Turkish War led Constantine to abdicate permanently in 1922 and go into exile in Italy, where he died a few months later.[77][78][79] His eldest son, George II, briefly succeeded him before also renouncing the throne.[80]
The assassination of George I marked the end of his nearly 50-year reign, making it the longest in modern Greek history. Excluding Alexander I, who was a puppet king under Eleftherios Venizelos' influence,[81] and Paul I, the only monarch to reign uninterrupted from enthronement to natural death,[82] George I's successors all faced exile.[Note 10] After World War I and the Greco-Turkish War,[86] Greece experienced a brief period of republicanism from 1924 to 1935.[87] Subsequently, the country endured a civil war from 1946 to 1949 and a military dictatorship from 1967 to 1974, which led to the definitive abolition of the monarchy in 1973. A referendum in the following year confirmed the establishment of the Third Republic.[85][88]
Legacy and tributes
The Papafeio orphanage (2020), where George I was taken after the attempt on his life.
Since 1960, a room at the Papafeio orphanage, a former military hospital where the body of George I was taken after the assassination by Alexandros Schinas, has been transformed into a small museum dedicated to the first King of the Hellenes.[91]
In 2013, to mark the centenary of the king's assassination, the Hellenic Post released a series of ten commemorative envelopes featuring his image. One of these envelopes was presented to King Constantine II, the great-grandson of George I and the final sovereign of Greece.[92]
↑ Jean des Cars states that the assassination occurred at 6:30pm,[7] while Prince Christopher of Greece places it in the morning.[20] However, other sources offer conflicting accounts of the timing.
↑ Reporting on the attack, the French newspaper Le Gaulois indicates that the two sentences were pronounced successively.[33]
↑ Upon being informed, the Queen of the Hellenes begins to cry and calmly declares that what has just happened "is the will of God." She then decided to prepare to go to Thessaloniki the next day. In the Macedonian city, Olga and the royal family visit the scenes of the assassination and pay their respects to the monarch's body.[43][44] The press of the time gives a slightly different account of the queen's reaction, with the Swiss newspaper La Liberté stating that upon learning of her husband's death, she burst into tears and fainted several times.[42]
↑ Queen Alexandra experienced the loss of her stepson, the Duke of Fife (January 29, 1912), followed by the passing of her brother, King Frederick VIII of Denmark (May 14, 1912), and her nephew, Prince George of Cumberland (May 20, 1912).
↑ In addition to the countries mentioned, courts across Europe are in mourning, and governments of many other nations are also paying tribute to King George I. Le Figaro, in its March 20, 1913 issue, highlights the special nature of these expressions of sympathy and condolences, particularly in the Balkan States and Russia. This is due to the close family ties that unite the imperial family with the royal family of Greece, as noted in the press and Parliaments.[48]
↑ Constantine, the crown prince, is described as "very Prussian"[39] and is married to the German princess Sophia of Prussia. He is suspected of sympathizing with Germany, which is seen as detrimental to Greece.[51][27]
↑ He declares, "No! I killed the king by chance. (sic) I was walking like a dead man, not knowing where I was going. Suddenly, I turned my head and saw the king and his adjutant behind me. I slowed down my pace as the king passed very close to me. I let him pass and then immediately fired."[54]
↑ Michael Kemp wrote: "In the nineteenth century, the terms 'socialism' and 'anarchism' were frequently used interchangeably. Despite the substantial difference between ideologies focused on reforming the state and those advocating for its complete abolition, many public figures and newspaper articles of that era overlooked this distinction. Socialism and anarchism were perceived as significant social and political threats in the public and media discourse at the time [...]."[62]
Prince Andrew of Greece and Denmark was the seventh child and fourth son of King George I and Queen Olga of Greece. He was a grandson of King Christian IX of Denmark and the father of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. He was a prince of Greece and Denmark, both by virtue of his patrilineal descent.
Paul was King of Greece, reigning from 1 April 1947 until his death on 6 March 1964.
George II was King of Greece from 27 September 1922 until 25 March 1924, and again from 25 November 1935 until his death on 1 April 1947.
Constantine I was King of Greece from 18 March 1913 to 11 June 1917 and from 19 December 1920 to 27 September 1922. He was commander-in-chief of the Hellenic Army during the unsuccessful Greco-Turkish War of 1897 and led the Greek forces during the successful Balkan Wars of 1912–1913, in which Greece expanded to include Thessaloniki, doubling in area and population. The eldest son of George I of Greece, he succeeded to the throne following his father's assassination in 1913.
Alexander was King of Greece from 11 June 1917 until his death in 1920.
George I was King of Greece from 30 March 1863 until his assassination in 1913.
Eleftherios Kyriakou Venizelos was a Cretan Greek statesman and prominent leader of the Greek national liberation movement. He is noted for his contribution to the expansion of Greece and promotion of liberal-democratic policies. As leader of the Liberal Party, he held office as prime minister of Greece for over 12 years, spanning eight terms between 1910 and 1933. During his governance, Venizelos entered in diplomatic cooperation with the Great Powers and had profound influence on the internal and external affairs of Greece. He has therefore been labelled as "The Maker of Modern Greece" and is still widely known as the "Ethnarch".
Aspasia Manou was a Greek aristocrat who became the wife of Alexander I, King of Greece. Due to the controversy over her marriage, she was styled Madame Manou instead of "Queen Aspasia", until recognized as Princess Aspasia of Greece and Denmark after Alexander's death and the restoration of King Constantine I, on 10 September 1922. Through her marriage, she and her descendants were the only ethnically Greek members of the Greek royal family, which originated in Denmark.
Olga Constantinovna of Russia was Queen of Greece as the wife of King George I. She was briefly the regent of Greece in 1920.
Sophia of Prussia was Queen of Greece from 1913 to 1917 and from 1920 to 1922 as the wife of King Constantine I.
Helen of Greece and Denmark was the queen mother of Romania during the reign of her son King Michael I (1940–1947). She was noted for her humanitarian efforts to save Romanian Jews during World War II, which led to her being awarded by the State of Israel with the honorific of Righteous Among the Nations in 1993.
Princess Katherine of Greece and Denmark, styled in the United Kingdom as Lady Katherine Brandram from 1947 until 2007, was the third daughter and youngest child of King Constantine I of Greece and Princess Sophia of Prussia.
The National Schism, also sometimes called The Great Division, was a series of disagreements between King Constantine I and Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos regarding the foreign policy of Greece in the period of 1910–1922 of which the tipping point was whether Greece should enter World War I. Venizelos was in support of the Allies and wanted Greece to join the war on their side, while the pro-German King wanted Greece to remain neutral, which would favor the plans of the Central Powers.
Princess Theodora of Greece and Denmark was a Greek and Danish princess by birth and Margravine of Baden through her marriage to Berthold, pretender to the throne of the Grand Duchy of Baden.
Alexandros Schinas, also known as Aleko Schinas, assassinated King George I of Greece in 1913. Schinas has been variously portrayed as either an anarchist with political motivations, or a madman, but the historical record is inconclusive. Schinas described himself as a socialist.
Anarchism in Greece traces its roots to ancient Greece but was formed as a political movement during the 19th century. It was in the ancient era that the first libertarian thoughts appeared when philosophers based on rationality questioned the fundamentals of tradition. Modern anarchism in Greece emerged in the 19th century, heavily influenced by the contemporary European classical anarchism. Because of the Bolshevik success in the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the rise of the Communist Party, anarchism faded after the first decades of the 20th century. The collapse of the military junta put an end to the monopoly of the political power from the Right, whereas the dissolution of the Soviet Union diminished the allure of the Communist Party of Greece allowing anarchist groups to gain pace in Athens and other cities.
Princess Margarita of Greece and Denmark was a Greek and Danish princess by birth and Princess of Hohenlohe-Langenburg by marriage. An elder sister of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, she was, for a time, linked to the Nazi regime.
This is a timeline of modern Greek history.
The Goudi coup was a military coup d'état that took place in Greece on the night of 28 August [O.S. 15 August] 1909, starting at the barracks in Goudi, a neighborhood on the eastern outskirts of Athens. The coup was a pivotal event in modern Greek history, as it led to the arrival of Eleftherios Venizelos in Greece and his eventual appointment as prime minister. At one stroke, this put an end to the old political system, and ushered in a new period. Henceforth and for several decades, Greek political life was dominated by two opposing forces: liberal, republican Venizelism and conservative, monarchist anti-Venizelism.
The participation of Greece in the Balkan Wars of 1912–1913 is one of the most important episodes in modern Greek history, as it allowed the Greek state to almost double its size and achieve most of its present territorial size. It also served as a catalyst of political developments, as it brought to prominence two personalities, whose relationship would dominate the next decade and have long-lasting repercussions for Greece: the Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos, and the Army's commander-in-chief, the Crown Prince and later King, Constantine I.
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Μέγας, Γιάννης (2020). "18 Μαρτίου 1913: Δολοφονία του βασιλιά Γεώργιου". Απαγωγές και δολοφονίες στη Θεσσαλονίκη 1852-1913 (in Greek). University Studio Press. pp.247–258. ISBN978-960-12-2510-4.
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Προυσσιώτη, Αρίστη (2013). Οι δολοφονίες του βασιλέως Γεωργίου Α': Επάλληλες αναδιηγήσεις (in Greek). Athens: Μελάνι. ISBN9789609530422.
West, Nigel (2017). "George I". Encyclopedia of political assassinations. Rowman & Littlefield. p.83. ISBN9781538102381. OCLC980219049.
Greece, Christopher (2021). Ma famille côté cours (in French). Paris: Lacurne. ISBN978-2-35603-025-2.
de Kertanguy, Inès (2023). Princesse Alice de Battenberg: Le tragique destin de la mère du prince Philip (in French). Paris: Presses de la Cité. ISBN978-2-258-20066-1.
Sáinz de Medrano, Ricardo Mateos (2004). La Familia de la Reina Sofía: La Dinastía griega, la Casa de Hannover y los reales primos de Europa (in Spanish). Madrid: La Esfera de los Libros. ISBN978-84-9734-195-0.
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Vickers, Hugo (2000). Alice: Princess Andrew of Greece. Londres: Hamish Hamilton. ISBN0-241-13686-5.
Anarchist movement
Bach Jensen, Richard (2015). "Anarchist terrorism and counter-terrorism in Europe and the world, 1878–1934". The Routledge History of Terrorism. Routledge. pp.111–129. ISBN9781317514879. OCLC951551065.
Bach Jensen, Richard (2016). "Historical lessons: an overview of early anarchism and lone actor terrorism". Understanding Lone Actor Terrorism: Past Experience, Future Outlook, and Response Strategies. Routledge. pp.29–45. ISBN9781317328612. OCLC947086466.
Kemp, Michael (2018). "Beneath a White Tower". Bombs, Bullets and Bread: The Politics of Anarchist Terrorism Worldwide, 1866–1926. McFarland & Company. pp.178–186. ISBN9781476671017. OCLC1043054028.
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