Avgas (aviation gasoline, also known as aviation spirit in the UK) is an aviation fuel used in aircraft with spark-ignited internal combustion engines. Avgas is distinguished from conventional gasoline (petrol) used in motor vehicles, which is termed mogas (motor gasoline) in an aviation context. Unlike motor gasoline, which has been formulated without lead since the 1970s to allow the use of catalytic converters for pollution reduction, the most commonly used grades of avgas still contain tetraethyl lead, a toxic lead containing additive used to aid in lubrication of the engine, increase octane rating, and prevent engine knocking (premature detonation). There are ongoing efforts to reduce or eliminate the use of lead in aviation gasoline.
Kerosene-based jet fuel is formulated to suit the requirements of turbine engines which have no octane requirement and operate over a much wider flight envelope than piston engines. Kerosene is also used by most diesel piston engines developed for aviation use, such as those by SMA Engines, Austro Engine, and Thielert.
Properties
The main petroleum component used in blending avgas is alkylate, which is a mixture of various isooctanes. Some refineries also use reformate. All grades of avgas that meet CAN 2–3[further explanation needed], 25-M82[further explanation needed] have a density of 6.01 pounds per US gallon (720g/L) at 15°C (59°F). (6lb/U.S. gal is commonly used in America for weight and balance computation.)[1] Density increases to 6.41 pounds per US gallon (768g/L) at −40°C (−40°F), and decreases by about 0.1% per 1°C (1.8°F) increase in temperature.[2][3] Avgas has an emission coefficient (or factor) of 18.355 pounds per US gallon (2.1994kg/L) of CO2[4][5] or about 3.07 units of weight CO2 produced per unit weight of fuel used. Avgas is less volatile, with a Reid vapor pressure range of 5.5 to 7 psi, than automotive gasoline, with a range of 8 to 14 psi. A minimum limit ensures adequate volatility for engine starting. The upper limits are related to atmospheric pressure at sea level, 14.7 psi, for motor vehicles and ambient pressure at 22,000 ft, 6.25 psi, for aircraft. The lower avgas volatility reduces the chance of vapor lock in fuel lines at altitudes up to 22,000 ft.[6]
The particular mixtures in use today are the same as when they were first developed in the 1940s, and were used in airline and military aero engines with high levels of supercharging; notably the Rolls-Royce Merlin engine used in the Spitfire and Hurricane fighters, Mosquito fighter-bomber and Lancaster heavy bomber (the Merlin II and later versions required 100-octane fuel), as well as the liquid-cooled Allison V-1710 engine, and air-cooled radial engines from Pratt & Whitney, Wright, and other manufacturers on both sides of the Atlantic. The high octane ratings were traditionally achieved by the addition of tetraethyllead, a highly toxic substance that was phased out of automotive use in most countries in the late 20th century.
Leaded avgas is currently available in several grades with differing maximum lead concentrations. (Unleaded avgas is also available.) Because tetraethyllead is a toxic additive, the minimum amount needed to bring the fuel to the required octane rating is used; actual concentrations are often lower than the permissible maximum.[citation needed] Historically, many post-WWII developed, low-powered 4- and 6-cylinder piston aircraft engines were designed to use leaded fuels; an unleaded replacement fuel is being developed and certified for these engines. Some reciprocating-engine aircraft still require leaded fuels, but some do not, and some can burn unleaded gasoline if a special oil additive is used.
Consumption
The annual US usage of avgas was 186million US gallons (700,000m3) in 2008, and was approximately 0.14% of the motor gasoline consumption. From 1983 through 2008, US usage of avgas declined consistently by approximately 7.5million US gallons (28,000m3) each year.[7] As of 2024, the annual US usage of avgas was 180million US gallons (680,000m3),[8] most of which contained lead,[9] and 170,000 aircraft in the US used leaded avgas.[9]
In Europe, avgas remains the most common piston-engine fuel. High prices have encouraged efforts to convert to diesel fuel, which is more readily available, less expensive, and has advantages for aviation use.[10]
Grades
Grades of avgas are identified by two numbers associated with its Motor Octane Number (MON).[11] The first number indicates the octane rating of the fuel tested to "aviation lean" standards, which is similar to the anti-knock index or "pump rating" given to automotive gasoline in the US. The second number indicates the octane rating of the fuel tested to the "aviation rich" standard, which tries to simulate a supercharged condition with a rich mixture, elevated temperatures, and a high manifold pressure. For example, 100/130 avgas has an octane rating of 100 at the lean settings usually used for cruising and 130 at the rich settings used for take-off and other full-power conditions.[12]
Antiknock agents such as tetraethyl lead (TEL) help to control detonation and provide lubrication. One gram of TEL contains 640.6 milligrams of lead.
ethanol-free, antioxidant and antistatic additives;[19] ASTM D7547
In 1991, Hjelmco Oil introduced 91/96UL (also meeting leaded grade 91/98 standard ASTM D910) in Sweden. The fuel can be used in more than 90% of the piston aircraft fleet worldwide.[20][21][22][23][24][22]
In 2010, the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) cleared this fuel for aircraft engines whose manufacturer has approved it, based on 20 years of trouble-free operations.[25]
TEL; maximum 0.56 grams lead (.875 gr of TEL)[28] per Litre, (2.12 grams per US gallon,) similar to the lead content of automotive gasoline from 1973.)[29]
Composed primarily of aviation alkylate (same as used for 100LL). Developed by General Aviation Modifications, Inc. (GAMI), G100UL is not certified by ASTM.[8]
Fleet wide supplemental type certificate (STC) approved in 2022. In April 2024, 1.2 million gallons were available. STC is required. Distribution planned to airports on the US West Coast in 2024.[31][32]
100R
0
n/a
Swift Fuels LLC
Received STC in 2024 for Cessna 172 Skyhawk R and S[33]
The largest, boost-supercharged radial engines needing this fuel's anti-detonation properties.[37]
Limited batches are produced for special events such as unlimited air races. Reintroduced by Warter Aviation 2015.[38]
100LL (blue)
Taking a fuel sample from an under-wing drain using a GATS Jar fuel sampler. The blue dye indicates that this fuel is 100LL.
100LL (pronounced "one hundred low lead") may contain a maximum of one-half the tetraethyllead allowed in 100/130 (green) avgas.[16][39]
Some of the lower-powered (100–150 horsepower or 75–112 kilowatts) aviation engines that were developed in the late 1990s are designed to run on unleaded fuel and on 100LL, an example being the Rotax 912.[20]
Automotive gasoline
An EAA Cessna 150 used for American STC certification of auto fuel
Automotive gasoline– known as mogas or autogas among aviators– that does not contain ethanol may be used in certified aircraft that have a Supplemental Type Certificate (STC) for automotive gasoline, as well as in experimental aircraft and ultralight aircraft.[citation needed] Some oxygenates other than ethanol are approved, but these STC's prohibit ethanol-laced gasolines.[citation needed] Ethanol-treated gasoline is susceptible to phase-separation which is very possible due to the altitude/temperature changes light airplanes undergo in ordinary flight.[citation needed] This ethanol-treated fuel can flood the fuel system with water which can cause in-flight engine failure.[citation needed] Additionally, the phase-separated fuel can leave remaining portions that do not meet octane requirements due to the loss of the ethanol in the water-absorption process. Further, the ethanol can attack materials in aircraft construction which pre-date "gasahol" fuels.[citation needed] Most of these applicable aircraft have low-compression engines which were originally certified to run on 80/87 avgas and require only "regular" 87 anti-knock index automotive gasoline. Examples include the popular Cessna 172 Skyhawk or Piper Cherokee with the 150hp (110kW) variant of the Lycoming O-320.[citation needed]
Some aircraft engines were originally certified using a 91/96 avgas and have STCs available to run "premium" 91 anti-knock index (AKI) automotive gasoline. Examples include some Cherokees with the 160hp (120kW)Lycoming O-320 or 180hp (130kW)O-360, or the Cessna 152 with the O-235. The AKI rating of typical automotive fuel might not directly correspond to the 91/96 avgas used to certify engines, as motor vehicle pumps in the US use the so-called "(R + M)/2" averaged motor vehicle octane rating system as posted on gas station pumps. Sensitivity is roughly 8–10 points, meaning that a 91 AKI fuel might have a MON of as low as 86. The extensive testing process required to obtain an STC for the engine/airframe combination helps ensure that, for those eligible aircraft, 91 AKI fuel provides sufficient detonation margin under normal conditions.[citation needed]
Automotive gasoline is not a fully viable replacement for avgas in many aircraft, because many high-performance and/or turbocharged airplane engines require 100 octane fuel and modifications are necessary in order to use lower-octane fuel.[40][41]
Many general aviationaircraft engines were designed to run on 80/87 octane,[citation needed] roughly the standard (as unleaded fuel only, with the "{R+M}/2" 87 octane rating) for North American automobiles today. Direct conversions to run on automotive fuel are fairly common, by supplemental type certificate (STC). However, the alloys used in aviation engine construction are chosen for their durability and synergistic relationship with the protective features of lead, and engine wear in the valves is a potential problem on automotive gasoline conversions.[citation needed]
Fortunately, significant history of engines converted to mogas has shown that very few engine problems are caused by automotive gasoline[citation needed]. A larger problem stems from the higher and wider range of allowable vapor pressures found in automotive gasoline; this can pose some risk to aviation users if fuel system design considerations are not taken into account. Automotive gasoline can vaporize in fuel lines, causing a vapor lock (a bubble in the line) or fuel pump cavitation, thereby starving the engine of fuel. This does not constitute an insurmountable obstacle, but merely requires examination of the fuel system, ensuring adequate shielding from high temperatures and maintaining sufficient pressure in the fuel lines. This is the main reason why both the specific engine model as well as the aircraft in which it is installed must be supplementally certified for the conversion. A good example of this is the Piper Cherokee with high-compression 160 or 180hp (120 or 130kW) engines. Only later versions of the airframe with different engine cowling and exhaust arrangements are applicable for the automotive fuel STC, and even then require fuel-system modifications.[citation needed]
Vapor lock typically occurs in fuel systems where a mechanically-driven fuel pump mounted on the engine draws fuel from a tank mounted lower than the pump. The reduced pressure in the line can cause the more volatile components in automotive gasoline to flash into vapor, forming bubbles in the fuel line and interrupting fuel flow. If an electric boost pump is mounted in the fuel tank to push fuel toward the engine, as is common practice in fuel-injected automobiles, the fuel pressure in the lines is maintained above ambient pressure, preventing bubble formation. Likewise, if the fuel tank is mounted above the engine and fuel flows primarily due to gravity, as in a high-wing airplane, vapor lock cannot occur, using either aviation or automotive fuels. Fuel-injected engines in automobiles also usually have a "fuel return" line to send unused fuel back to the tank, which has the benefit of equalizing the fuel's temperature throughout the system, further reducing the chance of vapor lock developing.[citation needed]
In addition to vapor locking potential, automotive gasoline does not have the same quality tracking as aviation gasoline. To help solve this problem, the specification for an aviation fuel known as 82UL was developed as essentially automotive gasoline with additional quality tracking and restrictions on permissible additives. This fuel is not currently in production and no refiners have committed to producing it.[14]
Gasohol
Rotax allows up to 10% ethanol (similar to E10 fuel for cars) in the fuel for Rotax 912 engines. Light sport aircraft that are specified by the manufacturer to tolerate alcohol in the fuel system can use up to 10% ethanol.[20]
Fuel dyes aid ground crew and pilots in identifying and distinguishing the fuel grades[13] and most are specified by ASTM D910 or other standards.[16] Dyes for the fuel are required in some countries.[42]
The 100LL phase-out has been called "one of modern GA's most pressing problems",[43] because 70% of 100LL aviation fuel is used by the 30% of the aircraft in the general aviation fleet that cannot use any of the existing alternatives.[44][45][46]
There are three fundamental issues in using unleaded fuels without serious modification of the airframe/engine:
The fuel must have a high enough octane rating (and meet other specifications) to replace leaded fuels,
The engine must be certified to use the fuel, and
The airframe must also be certified to use the fuel.[47]
In February 2008, Teledyne Continental Motors (TCM) announced that the company is very concerned about future availability of 100LL, and as a result, they would develop a line of diesel engines.[48] In a February 2008 interview, TCM president Rhett Ross indicated belief that the aviation industry will be "forced out" of using 100LL in the near future, leaving automotive fuel and jet fuel as the only alternatives. In May 2010, TCM announced that they had licensed development of the SMA SR305 diesel engine.[49][50][51]
In November 2008, National Air Transportation Association president Jim Coyne indicated that the environmental impact of aviation is expected to be a big issue over the next few years and will result in the phasing out of 100LL because of its lead content.[52]
By May 2012, the US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA Unleaded Avgas Transition rulemaking committee) had put together a plan in conjunction with industry to replace leaded avgas with an unleaded alternative within 11 years. Given the progress already made on 100SF and G100UL, the replacement time might be shorter than that 2023 estimate. Each candidate fuel must meet a checklist of 12 fuel specification parameters and 4 distribution and storage parameters. The FAA has requested a maximum of US$60M to fund the administration of the changeover.[53][54] In July 2014, nine companies and consortiums submitted proposals to the Piston Aviation Fuels Initiative (PAFI) to assess fuels without tetraethyl lead. Phase one testing is performed at the William J. Hughes Technical Center for a FAA approved industry replacement by 2018.[55]
Lycoming Engines provides a list of engines and fuels that are compatible with unleaded fuel. However, all of their engines require that an oil additive be used when unleaded fuel is used: "When using the unleaded fuels identified in Table 1, Lycoming oil additive P/N LW-16702, or an equivalent finished product such as Aeroshell 15W-50, must be used."[22] Lycoming also notes that the octane rating of the fuel used must also meet the requirements stated in the fuel specification, otherwise engine damage may occur due to detonation.
Prior to 2022, Teledyne Continental Motors (TCM) indicated that leaded avgas is required in their engines, and not unleaded auto fuels: "Current aircraft engines feature valve gear components which are designed for compatibility with the leaded ASTM D910 fuels. In such fuels, the lead acts as a lubricant, coating the contact areas between the valve, guide, and seat. The use of unleaded auto fuels with engines designed for leaded fuels can result in excessive exhaust valve seat wear due to the lack of lead with cylinder performance deteriorating to unacceptable levels in under 10 hours."[57]
In 2022, TCM changed its policy. They have announced a formal application to the FAA to approve the use of UL91 and UL94 in selected engines, stating that "Continental considers 91UL and 94UL fuel as a transitional step in a long-term strategy to reach a more sustainable aviation".[58]
New unleaded fuel grades
91UL (or UL91)
Hjelmco Oil first introduced unleaded Avgas grades in Europe in 2003, after its success with 80UL.[59] This grade of Avgas is manufactured to meet ASTM D7547.[60] Many common Lycoming engines are certified to run on this particular grade of Avgas,[22] and Cessna has approved the use of this fuel in a large number of their piston fleet.[61] This fuel is also usable in any aircraft in Europe[62] or the United Kingdom[63] where the engine is certified to use it, whether or not the airframe is certified to do so, too.
93UL (Ethanol-free 93AKI automotive gasoline)
The firm Airworthy AutoGas tested an ethanol-free 93 anti-knock index (AKI) premium auto gas on a Lycoming O-360-A4M in 2013. The fuel is certified under Lycoming Service Instruction 1070 and ASTM D4814.[64]
UL94 (formerly 94UL)
Unleaded 94 Motor octane fuel (UL94) is essentially 100LL without the lead. In March 2009, Teledyne Continental Motors (TCM) announced they had tested a 94UL fuel that might be the best replacement for 100LL. This 94UL meets the avgas specification including vapor pressure but has not been completely tested for detonation qualities in all Continental engines or under all conditions. Flight testing has been conducted in an IO-550-B powering a Beechcraft Bonanza and ground testing in Continental O-200, 240, O-470, and O-520 engines. In May 2010, TCM indicated that despite industry skepticism, they are proceeding with 94UL and that certification was expected in mid-2013.[65][66]
In June 2010, Lycoming Engines indicated their opposition to 94UL. Company general manager Michael Kraft stated that aircraft owners do not realize how much performance would be lost with 94UL and characterized the decision to pursue 94UL as a mistake that could cost the aviation industry billions in lost business. Lycoming believes the industry should be pursuing 100UL instead. The Lycoming position is supported by aircraft type clubs representing owners of aircraft that would be unable to run on lower octane fuel. In June 2010, clubs such as the American Bonanza Society, the Malibu Mirage Owners and Pilots Association, and the Cirrus Owners and Pilots Association collectively formed the Clean 100 Octane Coalition to represent them on this issue and push for unleaded 100 octane avgas.[67][68][69][70]
In November 2015, UL94 was added as a secondary grade of unleaded aviation gasoline to ASTM D7547, which is the specification that governs UL91 unleaded avgas. UL91 is currently being sold in Europe. UL94 meets all of the same specification property limits as 100LL with the exception of a lower motor octane number (94.0 minimum for UL94 vs. 99.6 minimum for 100LL) and a decreased maximum lead content. UL94 is an unleaded fuel, but as with all ASTM International unleaded gasoline specifications, a de minimis amount of unintentionally added lead is permitted.[60]
Since May 2016, UL94, now a product of Swift Fuels, is available for sale at dozens of airports in the United States. Swift Fuels has an agreement for distribution in Europe.[71][72][73]
UL94 is not intended to be a full replacement for 100LL, but rather is designed to be a drop-in replacement for aircraft with lower-octane-rated engines, such as those that are approved for operation on Grade 80 avgas (or lower), UL91, or mogas. It is estimated that up to 65% of the fleet of current general aviation piston-engine-powered aircraft can operate on UL94 with no modifications to either the engine or airframe. Some aircraft, however, do require a FAA-approved Supplemental Type Certificate (STC) to be purchased to allow for operation on UL94.[72][74][75]
UL94 has a minimum Motor octane number (MON, which is the octane rating employed for grading aviation gasoline) of 94.0. 100LL has a minimum MON of 99.6.[16][60]
AKI is the octane rating used to grade all U.S. automotive gasoline (typical values at the pump can include 87, 89, 91, and 93), and also the 93UL fuel from Airworthy AutoGas.
The minimum AKI of UL94, as sold by Swift Fuels, is 98.0.
Concurrent with the addition of UL94 to ASTM D7547, the FAA published Special Airworthiness Information Bulletin (SAIB) HQ-16-05, which states that "UL94 meets the operating limitations or aircraft and engines approved to operate with grade UL91 avgas," meaning that "Grade UL94 avgas that meets specification D7547 is acceptable to use on those aircraft and engines that are approved to operate with... grade UL91 avgas that meets specification D7547."[76] In August 2016, the FAA revised SAIB HQ-16-05 to include similar wording regarding the acceptability of using UL94 in aircraft and engines that are approved to operate with avgas that has a minimum Motor octane rating of 80 or lower, including Grade 80/87.[77]
The publication of the SAIB, especially the August 2016 revision, eliminated the need for many of the UL94 STCs being sold by Swift Fuels, as the majority of the aircraft on the STC's Approved Model List are type-certified to use 80-octane or lower avgas.
On April 6, 2017, Lycoming Engines published Service Instruction 1070V, which adds UL94 as an approved grade of fuel for dozens of engine models, 60% of which are carbureted engines. Engines with displacements of 235, 320, 360, and 540 cubic inches make up almost 90% of the models approved for UL94.[22]
Swift Fuels, LLC, has attained approval to produce fuel for testing at its pilot plant in Indiana. Composed of approximately 85% mesitylene and 15% isopentane, the fuel is reportedly scheduled for extensive testing by the FAA to receive certification under the new ASTM D7719 guideline for unleaded 100LL replacement fuels. The company eventually intends to produce the fuel from renewable biomass feedstocks, and aims to produce something competitive in price with 100LL and currently available alternative fuels. Swift Fuels has suggested that the fuel, formerly referred to as 100SF, will be available for "high performance piston-powered aircraft" before 2020.[71]
John and Mary-Louise Rusek founded Swift Enterprises in 2001 to develop renewable fuels and hydrogen fuel cells. They began testing "Swift 142" in 2006[78] and patented several alternatives for non-alcohol based fuels which can be derived from biomass fermentation.[79] Over the next several years, the company sought to build a pilot plant to produce enough fuel for larger-scale testing[80][81] and submitted fuel to the FAA for testing.[82][83][84][85]
In 2008, an article by technology writer and aviation enthusiast Robert X. Cringely attracted popular attention to the fuel,[86] as also did a cross-country Swift-Fueled flight by the AOPA's Dave Hirschman.[87] Swift Enterprises' claims that the fuel could eventually be manufactured much more cheaply than 100LL have been debated in the aviation press.[82][88][89][90][91][92][93]
The FAA found Swift Fuel to have a motor octane number of 104.4, 96.3% of the energy per unit of mass, and 113% of the energy per unit of volume as 100LL, and to meet most of the ASTM D910 standard for leaded aviation fuel. Following tests in two Lycoming engines, the FAA concluded it performs better than 100LL in detonation testing and will provide a fuel saving of 8% per unit of volume, though it weighs 1 pound per US gallon (120g/L) more than 100LL. GC–FID testing showed the fuel to be made primarily of two components — one about 85% by weight and the other about 14% by weight.[94][95] Soon afterward, AVweb reported that Continental had begun the process of certifying several of its engines to use the new fuel.[96]
From 2009 through 2011, 100SF was approved as a test fuel by ASTM International, allowing the company to pursue certification testing.[97][98] satisfactorily tested by the FAA,[99] tested by Purdue University,[100] and approved under ASTM specification D7719 for high-octane Grade UL102, allowing the company to test more economically in non-experimental aircraft.[101]
In 2012, Swift Fuels LLC was formed to bring in oil and gas industry experience, scale up production and bring the fuel to market. By November 2013, the company had built its pilot plant and received approval to produce fuel in it.[102] Its most recent patent, approved in 2013, describes methods by which the fuel can be produced from fermentable biomass.[103]
The FAA scheduled UL102 for 2 years of phase 2 testing in its PAFI initiative beginning in the summer of 2016.[104]
G100UL
In February 2010, General Aviation Modifications Inc. (GAMI) announced that it was in the process of developing a 100LL replacement to be called G100UL ("unleaded"). This fuel is made by blending existing refinery products and yields detonation margins comparable to 100LL. The new fuel is slightly more dense than 100LL, but has a 3.5% higher thermodynamic output. G100UL is compatible with 100LL and can be mixed with it in aircraft tanks for use.[90][31][105]
In demonstrations held in July 2010, G100UL performed better than 100LL that just meets the minimum specification and performed as well as average production 100LL.[106]
G100UL was approved by the Federal Aviation Administration by the issuance of a Supplemental Type Certificate at AirVenture in July 2021. The STC was initially only applicable to Lycoming-powered models of the Cessna 172. The company indicated that the retail cost was expected to be 0.60–0.85 US dollars per US gallon higher than 100LL. [56] This was later revised to 1.00 US dollar per US gallon.[31]
In 2022, Paul Bertorelli of AVweb reported that the FAA was dragging its feet on broadly certifying G100UL, delaying approval of the fuel for more engines and spending over $80 million on EAGLE to re-start a search for an unleaded fuel when G100UL had been under evaluation for over 10 years.[107]
In September 2022, in a surprise announcement, the FAA approved an STC for the use of the fuel for all piston-engined aircraft and engine combinations. In February 2023, GAMI began selling supplemental type certificates to allow aircraft owners to use the fuel when it becomes available.[108][109] In April 2024, GAMI announced that 1 million gallons of G100UL had been produced. Fuel availability in the US was forecast for airports in California, Washington and Oregon by the middle of 2024 and the rest of the country by 2026.[32][31][108][109]
Shell Unleaded 100-Octane Fuel
In December 2013, Shell Oil announced that they had developed an unleaded 100 octane fuel and will submit it for FAA testing with certification expected within two to three years.[110] The fuel is alkylate-based with an additive package of aromatics. No information has yet been published with regard to its performance, producibility or price. Industry analysts have indicated that it will likely cost as much as or more than existing 100LL.[111]
Environmental regulation
TEL found in leaded avgas and its combustion products are potent neurotoxins that have been shown in scientific research to interfere with brain development in children. Children in residences or childcare facilities in close proximity to airports with moderate to high piston engine aircraft traffic are at especially high risk of high blood lead levels.[112][113][114] The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has noted that exposure to even very low levels of lead contamination has been conclusively linked to loss of IQ in children's brain function tests, thus providing a high degree of motivation to eliminate lead and its compounds from the environment.[115][116]
While lead concentrations in the air have declined, scientific studies have demonstrated that children's neurological development is harmed by much lower levels of lead exposure than previously understood. Low level lead exposure has been clearly linked to loss of IQ in performance testing. Even an average IQ loss of 1–2 points in children has a meaningful impact for the nation as a whole, as it would result in an increase in children classified as mentally challenged, as well as a proportional decrease in the number of children considered "gifted".[116]
On November 16, 2007, the environmental groupFriends of the Earth formally petitioned the EPA, asking them to regulate leaded avgas. The EPA responded with a notice of petition for rulemaking.[14]
The notice of petition stated:
Friends of the Earth has filed a petition with EPA, requesting that EPA find pursuant to section 231 of the Clean Air Act that lead emissions from general aviation aircraft cause or contribute to air pollution that may reasonably be anticipated to endanger public health or welfare and that EPA propose emissions standards for lead from general aviation aircraft. Alternatively, Friends of the Earth requests that EPA commence a study and investigation of the health and environmental impacts of lead emissions from general aviation aircraft, if EPA believes that insufficient information exists to make such a finding. The petition submitted by Friends of the Earth explains their view that lead emissions from general aviation aircraft endanger the public health and welfare, creating a duty for the EPA to propose emission standards.[117]
The public comment period on this petition closed on March 17, 2008.[117]
Under a federal court order to set a new standard by October 15, 2008, the EPA cut the acceptable limits for atmospheric lead from the previous standard of 1.5μg/m3 to 0.15μg/m3. This was the first change to the standard since 1978 and represents an order of magnitude reduction over previous levels. The new standard requires the 16,000 remaining USA sources of lead, which include lead smelting, airplane fuels, military installations, mining and metal smelting, iron and steel manufacturing, industrial boilers and process heaters, hazardous waste incineration, and production of batteries, to reduce their emissions by October 2011.[115][116][118]
The EPA's own studies have shown that to prevent a measurable decrease in IQ for children deemed most vulnerable, the standard needs to be set much lower, to 0.02μg/m3. The EPA identified avgas as one of the most "significant sources of lead".[119][120]
At an EPA public consultation held in June 2008 on the new standards, Andy Cebula, the Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association's executive vice president of government affairs, stated that general aviation plays a valuable role in the USA economy and any changes in lead standards that would change the current composition of avgas would have a "direct impact on the safety of flight and the very future of light aircraft in this country".[121]
In December 2008, AOPA filed formal comments to the new EPA regulations. AOPA has asked the EPA to account for the cost and the safety issues involved with removing lead from avgas. They cited that the aviation sector employs more than 1.3 million people in the US and has an economic direct and indirect effect that "exceeds $150 billion annually". AOPA interprets the new regulations as not affecting general aviation as they are currently written.[122]
Publication in the USA Federal Register of an Advance Notice of Proposed Rulemaking by the USA EPA occurred in April 2010. The EPA indicated: "This action will describe the lead inventory related to use of leaded avgas, air quality and exposure information, additional information the Agency is collecting related to the impact of lead emissions from piston-engine aircraft on air quality and will request comments on this information."[123][124]
Despite assertions in the media that leaded avgas will be eliminated in the US by 2017 at the latest date, the EPA confirmed in July 2010 that there is no phase-out date and that setting one would be an FAA responsibility as the EPA has no authority over avgas. The FAA administrator stated that regulating lead in avgas is an EPA responsibility, resulting in widespread criticism of both organizations for causing confusion and delaying solutions.[125][126][127][128][129]
In April 2011 at Sun 'n Fun, Pete Bunce, head of the General Aviation Manufacturers Association (GAMA), and Craig Fuller, president and CEO of the Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association, indicated that they both are confident that leaded avgas will not be eliminated until a suitable replacement is in place. "There is no reason to believe 100 low-lead will become unavailable in the foreseeable future," Fuller stated.[130]
Final results from EPA's lead modeling study at the Santa Monica Airport shows off-airport levels below current 150ng/m3 and possible future 20ng/m3 levels.[131] Fifteen of 17 airports monitored during a year-long study in the US by the EPA have lead emissions well below the current National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) for lead.[132]
Other uses
Avgas is occasionally used in amateur auto racing cars as its octane rating is higher than automotive gasoline thus allowing the engines to run at higher compression ratios.[citation needed]
Gasoline or petrol is a petrochemical product characterized as a transparent, yellowish, and flammable liquid normally used as a fuel for spark-ignited internal combustion engines. When formulated as a fuel for engines, gasoline is chemically composed of organic compounds derived from the fractional distillation of petroleum and later chemically enhanced with gasoline additives. It is a high-volume profitable product produced in crude oil refineries.
Tetraethyllead (commonly styled tetraethyl lead), abbreviated TEL, is an organolead compound with the formula Pb(C2H5)4. It was widely used as a fuel additive for much of the 20th century, first being mixed with gasoline beginning in the 1920s. This "leaded gasoline" had an increased octane rating that allowed engine compression to be raised substantially and in turn increased vehicle performance and fuel economy. TEL was first synthesised by German chemist Carl Jacob Löwig in 1853. American chemical engineer Thomas Midgley Jr., who was working for the U.S. corporation General Motors, was the first to discover its effectiveness as an antiknock agent in 1921, after spending several years attempting to find an additive that was both highly effective and inexpensive.
An octane rating, or octane number, is a standard measure of a fuel's ability to withstand compression in an internal combustion engine without causing engine knocking. The higher the octane number, the more compression the fuel can withstand before detonating. Octane rating does not relate directly to the power output or the energy content of the fuel per unit mass or volume, but simply indicates the resistance to detonating under pressure without a spark.
Aviation fuels are petroleum-based fuels, or petroleum and synthetic fuel blends, used to power aircraft. They have more stringent requirements than fuels used for ground use, such as heating and road transport, and contain additives to enhance or maintain properties important to fuel performance or handling. They are kerosene-based for gas turbine-powered aircraft. Piston-engined aircraft use leaded gasoline and those with diesel engines may use jet fuel (kerosene). By 2012, all aircraft operated by the U.S. Air Force had been certified to use a 50-50 blend of kerosene and synthetic fuel derived from coal or natural gas as a way of stabilizing the cost of fuel.
Continental Aerospace Technologies is an aircraft engine manufacturer located at the Brookley Aeroplex in Mobile, Alabama, United States. It was originally spun off from automobile engine manufacturer Continental Motors Company in 1929 and owned by Teledyne Technologies from 1969 until December 2010. The company is now part of Aviation Industry Corporation of China (AVIC), which is a Government of the People's Republic of China state-owned aerospace company headquartered in Beijing.
The Lycoming O-320 is a large family of naturally aspirated, 320 cu in (5.2 L) air-cooled, horizontally-opposed four-cylinder, direct-drive engines produced by Lycoming Engines. Introduced in 1953, it is commonly used on light aircraft such as the Cessna 172 and Piper Cherokee, and remains in production as of 2024. Different variants are rated for 150 or 160 horsepower.
The Rotax 912 is a horizontally-opposed four-cylinder, naturally-aspirated, four-stroke aircraft engine with a reduction gearbox. It features liquid-cooled cylinder heads and air-cooled cylinders. Originally equipped with carburetors, later versions are fuel injected. Dominating the market for small aircraft and kitplanes, Rotax produced its 50,000th 912-series engine in 2014. Originally available only for light sport aircraft, ultralight aircraft, autogyros and drones, the 912-series engine was approved for certified aircraft in 1995.
The Diamond DA42 Twin Star is a four seat, twin engine, propeller-driven airplane developed and manufactured in Austria and Canada by Diamond Aircraft Industries, an Austrian subsidiary of China-based Wanfeng Aviation. It was Diamond's first twin engine design, as well as the first new European twin-engine aircraft in its category to be developed in over 25 years. In 2004, the DA42 became the first diesel-powered fixed-wing aircraft to perform a non-stop crossing of the North Atlantic.
The Rotax 914 is a turbo-charged, four-stroke, four-cylinder, horizontally opposed aircraft engine with air-cooled cylinders and water-cooled cylinder heads. It is designed and built by the Austrian company BRP-Powertrain, owned by Bombardier Recreational Products (BRP), as part of its Rotax brand.
ULPower Aero Engines is a Belgian company which manufactures engines specifically designed for light aircraft/rotorcraft use.
The Continental IO-360 is a family of fuel-injected air-cooled, horizontally opposed six-cylinder aircraft engines manufactured by Continental Motors in the United States of America, now part of AVIC International since 2010.
The Lycoming IO-233 is a non-certified four-cylinder, air-cooled, horizontally opposed piston aircraft engine that produces between 100 hp (75 kW) and 116 hp (87 kW).
The American Legend AL3, AL11, and AL18 are a series of American light-sport aircraft inspired by the Piper Cub family.
The Continental CD-230 is a four-cylinder, horizontally opposed aircraft Diesel engine produced by Continental Motors, Inc. The engine received its type certificate from the US Federal Aviation Administration on December 19, 2012, under the official TD-300-B designation. A later revision adds the TD-300-C with a higher critical altitude.
The Diemech TP 100 is an American turboprop and turboshaft aircraft engine that was under development by Diemech Turbine Solutions of DeLand, Florida in 2012.
Superior Air Parts, Inc. is a Chinese-owned manufacturer of aviation piston engine replacement parts, headquartered in Coppell, Texas, United States. The company has been owned by Superior Aviation Beijing since 2010.
The ULPower UL350i is a Belgian aircraft engine, designed and produced by ULPower Aero Engines of Geluveld for use in ultralight and homebuilt aircraft.
The Rotax 535 is an Austrian aircraft engine, that was designed and produced by Rotax of Gunskirchen for use in motor gliders.
The CubCrafters CC19 XCub is an American light aircraft, designed and produced by Cub Crafters of Yakima, Washington, introduced in June 2016. The aircraft is supplied complete and ready-to-fly.
The Rotax 916 iS is an Austrian piston aircraft engine, designed and produced by Rotax of Gunskirchen for use in light aircraft, light sport, ultralight, homebuilt aircraft and Unmanned aerial vehicle.
References
↑ Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25A). FAA. pp.section 9–7.
↑ MacDonald, Sandy A. F.; Peppler, Isabel L. (2004) [1941]. "Chapter 10. Airmanship". From The Ground Up (Millenniumed.). Ottawa, Ontario, Canada: Aviation Publishers Co. Limited. pp.265, 261. ISBN978-0-9680390-5-2.
↑ US Energy Information Administration (2017). "Carbon Dioxide Emissions Coefficients". US Energy Information Administration website. Washington, DC. Archived from the original on February 13, 2017. Retrieved February 12, 2017.
↑ "EPA Takes Final Step in Phaseout of Leaded Gasoline". United States Environmental Protection Agency. 1996. Archived from the original on September 9, 2021. Retrieved October 19, 2021. Note: this 1996 USEPA document is provided solely to substantiate the 2–3 grams per gallon figure of lead in 1973 on-road automotive gasoline.
↑ "ASTM D910-11"(PDF). ASTM International. Archived(PDF) from the original on April 15, 2016. Retrieved September 5, 2021.
↑ AOPA ePublishing staff (March 19, 2006). "AOPA working on future avgas". AOPA online. Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association. Archived from the original on June 21, 2008. Retrieved August 28, 2008.
↑ Wood, Janice (September 29, 2013). "The future of fuel". General Aviation News. Archived from the original on August 4, 2014. Retrieved December 12, 2013.
↑ Dave Hirschman (September 2014). "FAA to Evaluate nine unleaded fuels". AOPA Pilot: 28.
↑ The patent lists Mary-Louise Rusek and Jon Ziulkowski as inventors.USapplication 2008168706,Rusek, Mary-Louise, R&Ziulkowski, Jonathon, D.,"Renewable Engine Fuel",published July 17, 2008, assigned to Swift Enterprises, Ltd.WOapplication 2008013922,Rusek, Mary-Louise, R&Ziulkowski, Jonathon, D.,"Renewable Engine Fuel",published 2008-01-31, assigned to Swift Enterprises Ltd
↑ Russ Niles (April 23, 2009). "Continental-powered Bonanza on Swift Fuel". AVweb. Archived from the original on June 12, 2011. Retrieved May 13, 2009. reporting on Press Release "Continental Motors Completes First Flight on Unleaded AvGas"(PDF) (Press release). Teledyne Continental Motors, Inc. March 31, 2009. Archived from the original(PDF) on July 16, 2009. With the first flights complete, TCM will begin the certification process of several engine models to meet the needs for existing and future aircraft
↑ Grady, Mary (October 2010). "Swift Fuel Expands Testing". Avweb. Aviation Publishing Group. Archived from the original on November 1, 2010. Retrieved October 28, 2010.
↑ Jim Moore (November 11, 2013). "Swift Fuels gains ASTM approval". Aircraft Owners and pilots Association. Archived from the original on November 18, 2013. Retrieved December 12, 2013.
↑ USpatent 8556999,RUSEK JOHN J; RUSEK MARY-LOUISE R& ZIULKOWSKI JONATHON Det al.,"Renewable Engine Fuel and method of producing Same",published July 17, 2008, assigned to Swift Enterprises LTD
↑ Zahran, Sammy; Iverson, Terrence; McElmurry, Shawn P.; Weiler, Stephan (June 1, 2017). "The Effect of Leaded Aviation Gasoline on Blood Lead in Children". Journal of the Association of Environmental and Resource Economists. 4 (2): 575–610. doi:10.1086/691686. S2CID59126623.
↑ "GA community works to replace 100LL". Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association. June 20, 2013. Archived from the original on June 25, 2013. Retrieved June 23, 2013. 15 of the [17] airports monitored during a year-long study have lead emissions well below the current National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) for lead.
External links
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