Bell shrine

Last updated
Shrine of St. Patrick's Bell, 11th century, National Museum of Ireland Campana di san patrizio e il suo contenitore, da armagh, co. armagh, VI-VIII secolo, poi 1100 ca. 02.jpg
Shrine of St. Patrick's Bell, 11th century, National Museum of Ireland

Bell shrines are metal objects built to hold early medieval hand-bells, particularly those associated with early Irish saints. Although the enshrinement of bells lasted from the 9th to the 16th centuries, the more well-known examples date from the 11th century. [1] Nineteen such Irish or British bell shrines survive, along with several fragments (mostly crests), although many more would have been produced. Of those extant, fifteen are Irish, three are Scottish and one is English. Most follow the general shape of a hand-bell capped with a crest above a semicircular cap that matches the shape of a bell handle. [2]

Contents

The shrines are mostly of bronze and decorated with silver, rock crystal, and niello. They can be classified into two basic formats; at first as fixed mounds attached to the bell known as "applied" shrines (eight examples) and later as separate autonomous metal containers (eleven examples). [3] Those of the latter type could no longer be rung and so were used for ceremonial or display purposes only. [2] Decorative material includes silver, gold, glass and rock crystal, and of designs using filigree, cloisonné, openwork, and interlace patterns. The majority are in the collections of the National Museum of Ireland (NMI), the National Museum of Scotland (NMS) and the British Museum (BM).

The surviving examples are undated, unprovenanced and very few have inscriptions. A number were found in bogs, within church walls, or at the bottom of rivers, presumably after they were hidden during the Viking and later Anglo-Norman invasions of Ireland. [1] Others were kept by successive generations of hereditary keepers, but by the 17th century had become seen as objects of superstition, and of low historical value. [4] [5] The revaluation of early medieval metalwork craftmanship began in the mid-19th century, and since an 1838 a lecture by George Petrie on "ancient Irish consecrated Bells", a number of these shrines are considered highpoints of both Irish and Scottish Insular and early Romanesque metalwork. [6]

Early Irish and Scottish hand-bells

Origins

View of the St. Patrick's bell and shrine on display Patricks klokke.jpg
View of the St. Patrick's bell and shrine on display

Early Irish church hand-bells (Irish: clog) are the most numerous surviving forms of early medieval relics from either Ireland, England or Wales, and were likely the most prestigious, given they were widely thought to have been built either for or by the saint. Approximately 300 examples are known, [7] [8] with the majority produced between the 5th and early 12th centuries. [7] The bells were passed between generations of successive abbots and clerics, and served a number of communal functions, including the marking of canonical hours and calling for mass. However, by the 12th century hand-bells had largely been replaced by larger church tower bells, and although many stayed in use, their production declined. [6] [9]

In the early medieval period, monks served a number of functions in the communities in which they lived. At the most fundamental level, their devotions and prayers were seen intercessory between mortals and the divine, and so were seen as mediators for the community. This role was reinforced in the settlements where the monks held a bell relic from an early insular church saint. The role of mediator appears in the hagiography of a number of such saints; Patrick (fl. 5th century) supposedly made "a pact [with God] for favorable treatment of the Irish in exchange for his services as a missionary". [10] Later the bell of Ciarán of Saigir (d. c. 530) was "taken through the surrounding district for the co-swearing of chieftans [...] and the exaction of the tributes of the saint's monastery." [10]

Types

Early Irish hand-bells on display in the NMI Early Medieval Bells in the National Museum of Ireland.jpg
Early Irish hand-bells on display in the NMI

The bells vary in size and level and type of decoration depending on their age. They typically have a tapered quadrilateral shape. Of the seventy-three surviving examples identified in 1980 by the archeologist Cormac Bourke, forty-two are of iron and the rest of bronze. He identified two broad groups. His class 1 bells are made from sheet iron plates lined with bronze coating and joined by rivets, range in height from 14 cm (5.5 in) to 31 cm (12 in) and were constructed by folding the main sheet along its short axis and then folding its shoulder-pieces to cover the crest and top edges. [6] Class 2 bells are in cast bronze, with the bell and handle cast as a single piece. They are usually slightly smaller, with a range from 31 cm (12 in). [11] Class 4 bells, dating from the 9th century and produced until the 16th century, designate the numerous replicas or imitations of earlier bells. [12]

A small number of the later shrines and shrine fragments have inscriptions. Some have decorative lozenges, perhaps drawing from Carolingian Ivory carving. [13] All of the extant shrines were built for iron bells; presumably as this class was older, they were more likely to be associated with a known early saint. [7] [14] Several were thought to have been owned or constructed by saints such as Patrick, Colum Cille and Kentigern. [15]

Function

Cap and crest of the Shrine of St. Patrick's Bell Campana di san patrizio e il suo contenitore, da armagh, co. armagh, VI-VIII secolo, poi 1100 ca. 08.jpg
Cap and crest of the Shrine of St. Patrick's Bell

The shrines were commissioned to bestow status and the ecclesiastical location or office holding the original bell-relic. [10] According to Bourke, "enshrinement promoted bells as ecclesiastical trophies and accessory's to saint's cults." [2] Objects associated with early saints were venerated in Ireland and Britain during the early medieval period for their reputed miraculous powers and became an important feature of religious life. [16] Irish monasticism generally avoided dissecting the corporeal remains of its leaders for relics, and instead venerated objects with which the saint had had close personal contact. From the 10th century, relics were often cased in elaborate metal covering, with bell shrines, staffs, cumdachs (book shrines), house-shaped shrines and pieces of clothing being the most common types. [17] [18] The practice of enshrinement was so unique to Ireland that Gerald of Wales (d. c. 1223) remarked the Irish had "great reverence [for] bells that can be carried about, and staffs belonging to the saints,...so much so that they fear to swear or perjure themselves in making oaths on these, much more than they do in swearing on the gospels". [19]

Crest fragment of a reliquary for a bronze bell, Musee de Cluny, Paris ClocheReliquaireCelte.jpg
Crest fragment of a reliquary for a bronze bell, Musée de Cluny, Paris

A second period of enshrinement lasted from the early 14th to late 15th centuries, when the earlier reliquaries were heavily reworked or refurbished; thus many of these objects are said to have been built in two phases. Shrines from the second phase were often commissioned by secular owners who used their prestige to reinforce personal loyalty from a local bishop, as insurers of treaties or contracts, and to grant authority for tax collection. [20]

Of the nineteen surviving Insular bell shrines, fifteen are Irish, three are Scottish and one is English. Twelve are associated with a particular saint, in the other cases the identity of the saint is lost. [16] It is assumed that by the time the bells were enshrined, they were already venerated relics; [21] there is no contemporary mention or documentation as to why or by whom they were commissioned or constructed; apart from brief inscriptions on three intact shrines and one crest fragment. [22] [23] Although some sources expect that they were commissioned by high-kings for abbeys, the art-historian Karen Overbey observes that the lack of documentary evidence means the objects cannot be contextualized "nor located in secular and ecclesiastical politics". [23] [24]

Characteristics

Christ with closed eyes, drooping head and rigid body on the front plate of the Corp Naomh (15th century) Reliquiario del corp naomh (sacro corpo), argento e bronzo con cristallo di rocca, da Templecross, co. Westmeath, x poi xv secolo, 01 (cropped4).jpg
Christ with closed eyes, drooping head and rigid body on the front plate of the Corp Naomh (15th century)

The shrines retain the tapered quadrilateral shape of hand-bells. Their basic shape is constructed with a number of iron or bronze plates: four on the sides and one covering the base. The plates are typically richly decorated with material such as silver, rock crystal, and niello. [26] It is thought that this decoration occurred on flat sheets after the panels were cast, but before they were assembled. [27]

Their front plates typically contain a large central cross added in their second, late medieval phase, although some of these are lost. [28] Where the Christ figure does survive, it is often outsized compared to his cross, and shows a figure that is obviously dead, with a drooping head and rigid body. According to Overbey, such foregrounds emphasise the role of "monastic prayer as powerfully apotropaic, even salvific...holy relics are simultaneously safeguarded and defensive; the saints and their guardians, whether angelic or monastic, protect each other". [29]

Although four examples are missing their bells, those that survive are made of iron: iron bells were no longer being produced by the end of the 10th century, while bronze bells are later and continued to be made into the 12th century, thus making them less likely to have an association with an early Irish saint. [30] A number of surviving iron bells contain rivets or rivet-holes, indicating that they were once enshrined. [16]

The shrines usually have handles or brackets at the short-sides. These would have held straps or bronze chains as the shrines were intended to be carried around the shoulder for display at procession, pilgrimage or at battle. [1] [31] The wire chain for the Scottish Bell shrine of Kilmichael survives and is 1,070 cm (420 in) long and made from series of s-curved links. [27]

Selected examples

The better-known bell shrines include the Shrine of St. Patrick's Bell (c. 1094–1105), [32] the badly damaged Corp Naomh (cap and crest 10th century; front and back panels 15th century), [33] the Bell Shrine of St. Cuileáin (11th or 12th century) [34] and the Bell Shrine of St. Conall Cael (15th century). [35] From its inscriptions, it is known that Patrick's shrine was commissioned after 1091 by the Uí Néill High King Domnall Ua Lochlainn, and donated to the Bishop of Armagh. [36] It is the earliest known example and is believed by Bourke to have been the innovation on which all later examples were based. [37]

Related Research Articles

<i>Cumdach</i> Medieval Irish case for a reliquary or book

A cumdach or book shrine is an elaborate ornamented metal reliquary box or case used to hold Early Medieval Irish manuscripts or relics. They are typically later than the book they contain, often by several centuries. In most surviving examples the book comes from the peak age of Irish monasticism before 800, and the extant cumdachs date from after 1000, although it is clear the form dates from considerably earlier. The majority are of Irish origin, with most surviving examples held by the National Museum of Ireland (NMI).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mac Cairthinn of Clogher</span>

Saint Mac Cairthinn, also Macartan, McCartan, is recognized as the first presiding Bishop of Clogher from 454 to his death. One of the earliest Christian saints in Ireland, he is known as Saint Patrick's "Threin Fhir", or "Strong Man" for his dedication and faithfulness to the fledgling Church. His feast day is 24 March.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">National Museum of Ireland – Archaeology</span> National museum in Dublin, Ireland

The National Museum of Ireland – Archaeology is a branch of the National Museum of Ireland located on Kildare Street in Dublin, Ireland, that specialises in Irish and other antiquities dating from the Stone Age to the Late Middle Ages.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kells Crozier</span>

The Kells crozier or British Museum Crozier is an early medieval Irish Insular crozier. It is often known as the "Kells Crozier", indicating an associating with the Abbey of Kells, although no evidence of this exists, and most historians accept that it is of uncertain providence. The crozier is fully intact, although some of the ornamentation is in poor condition.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bell Shrine of St. Cuileáin</span> Bell shrine in Ireland

The Bell Shrine of St. Cuileáin is an early mediaeval Irish bell shrine found near Borrisoleigh in County Tipperary, Ireland. The bell is capped by arched openwork mounds, decorated with silver, gold and copper, and has two facing human heads at either side. The main panel would have been its most decorated but is lost, apart from various animal heads on both sides of its upper wings. The shrine was built for to enshrine an early Christian Iron hand-bell dated to c. 1100, used to mark canonical hours and to call for mass. It is first mentioned in Irish records in 1825.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Domnach Airgid</span> 8th century Irish book shrine

The Domnach Airgid is an 8th-century Irish wooden reliquary. It was considerably reworked between the 13th and 15th centuries and became a cumdach or "book shrine", when its basic timber structure was reinforced and decorated by elaborate silver-gilt metalwork. Its front-cover was enhanced by gilded relief showing Jesus in "Arma Christi", alongside depictions of saints, angels and clerics, in scenes imbued with complex iconography. It is thus considered a mixture of the early Insular and later International Gothic styles.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shrine of Miosach</span> 11th-century Irish cumdach (book shrine)

The Shrine of Miosach is an elaborately ornamented 11th-century Irish cumdach. It originates from Clonmany, north County Donegal, and is first mentioned in the 1165 Irish annals. It is dated to the late 11th century, when it probably contained a manuscript with psalms or extracts from a Gospel. However, the shrine was empty when first described in detail in the 18th century. It was originally associated with St Cairneach, patron saint of Dulane, County Meath, but by the late medieval period had become part of the cult of the abbot and missionary Colm Cille.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Soiscél Molaisse</span> 11th-century Irish book shrine

The Soiscél Molaisse is an Irish cumdach that originated from an 8th-century wooden core embellished in the 11th and 15th centuries with metal plates decorated in the Insular style. Until the late 18th century, the shrine held a now-lost companion text, presumed to be a small illuminated gospel book associated with Saint Laisrén mac Nad Froích, also known as Molaisse or "Mo Laisse". In the 6th century, Molaisse founded a church on Devenish Island in the southern part of Lough Erne in County Fermanagh, with which the cumdach is associated.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">House-shaped shrine</span> Type of portable reliquary in the shape of a house

House-shaped shrine are early medieval portable metal reliquary formed in the shape of the roof of a rectangular building. They originate from both Ireland and Scotland and mostly date from the 8th or 9th centuries. Typical example consist of a wooden core covered with silver and copper alloy plates, and were built to hold relics of saints or martyrs from the early Church era; a number held corporeal remains when found in the modern period, presumably they were parts of the saint's body. Others, including the Breac Maodhóg, held manuscripts associated with the commemorated saint. Like many Insular shrines, they were heavily reworked and embellished in the centuries following their initial construction, often with metal adornments or figures influenced by Romanesque sculpture.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shrine of Saint Lachtin's Arm</span> Irish reliquary made of wood and metal

The Shrine of Saint Lachtin's Arm is an early 10th century Irish arm-shrine type reliquary made of wood and metal shaped as an outstretched forearm and clenched fist. St. Lachtin's dates to between 1118 and 1121 and is associated with his church in the village of Stuake, Donoughmore, County Cork, but probably originates from Kilnamartyra, also in Cork. It consists of a yew-wood core lined with decorated bronze and silver plates. The wood at the hand is hollowed out to create a reliquary cavity which once held the arm bone of St. Lachtin, but is now empty. The circular cap at its base contains a large transparent gemstone and is inlayed with silver decorated with filigree.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Insular crozier</span> Type of processional bishops staff

An Insular crozier is a type of processional bishop's staff (crozier) produced in Ireland and Scotland between 800 and 1200. Such items can be distinguished from mainland European types by their curved and open crooks, and drop. By the end of the 12th century, production of Irish croziers had largely ended, but examples continued to be reworked and added to throughout the Romanesque and Gothic periods. Although many of the croziers are associated with 5th- and 6th-century saints, the objects were not made until long after the saints had died. A majority originate from around the 9th century, and were often used as embellishment between the 11th and 13th centuries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Clonmacnoise Crozier</span> 11th-century Irish crozier

The Clonmacnoise Crozier is a late-11th-century Insular crozier that would have been used as a ceremonial staff for bishops and mitred abbots. Its origins and medieval provenance are unknown. It was likely discovered in the late 18th or early 19th century in the monastery of Clonmacnoise in County Offaly, Ireland. The crozier has two main parts: a long shaft and a curved crook. Its style reflects elements of Viking art, especially the snake-like animals in figure-of-eight patterns running on the sides of the body of the crook, and the ribbon of dog-like animals in openwork that form the crest at its top. Apart from a shortening to the staff length and the loss of some inserted gems, it is largely intact and is one of the best-preserved surviving pieces of Insular metalwork.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">St. Fillan's Crozier</span> 8th century Insular crozier crook

St. Fillan's Crozier is an 8th century Insular crozier crook traditionally associated with the Irish monk St. Fillan, who lived in the eighth century at Glendochart in Perthshire, central Scotland. Only the crook survives; the staff was lost at an unknown date. Sometime around the late 13th century it was encased in the Coigreach, a crosier-shrine of similar size and form built as a protective case, made from silver, gold and rock crystal and dating from the late 13th century, with additions c. the 14th or 15th centuries. The Coigreach was rediscovered in the mid-19th century by the archaeologist Daniel Wilson, who opened it and found St. Fillan's Crozier inside.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Moylough Belt-Shrine</span> Irish reliquary shaped in form of a belt

The Moylough Belt-Shrine is a highly decorated 8th-century Irish reliquary shaped in the form of a belt. It consists of four hinged bronze segments, each forming cavities that hold strips of plain leather assumed to have once been a girdle belonging to a saint and thus the intended relic. It remains the only known relic container created as a belt-shrine, although such objects are mentioned in some lives of Irish saints, where they are attributed with "remarkable cures", and there are surviving reliquary buckles in continental Europe. The belt may have been influenced by 7th-century Frankish and Burgundian types.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Corp Naomh</span> 9th or 10th century Irish bell shrine

The Corp Naomh is an Irish bell shrine made in the 9th or 10th century to enclose a now-lost hand-bell, which probably dated to c. 600 to 900 AD and belonged to an early Irish saint. The shrine was rediscovered sometime before 1682 at Tristernagh Abbey, near Templecross, County Westmeath. The shrine is 23 cm (9.1 in) high and 12 cm (4.7 in) wide. It was heavily refurbished and added to during a second phase of embellishment in the 15th century, and now consists of cast and sheet bronze plates mounted on a wooden core decorated with silver, niello and rock crystal. It is severely damaged with extensive losses and wear across almost all of its parts, and when discovered a block of wood had been substituted for the bell itself. The remaining elements are considered of high historical and artistic value by archeologists and art historians.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shrine of St. Patrick's Bell</span> 12th century Irish bell shrine

The Shrine of St. Patrick's Bell is a bell shrine reliquary completed c. 1094–1105 in County Armagh, Ireland, to contain a c. 500 iron hand-bell traditionally associated with the Irish patron saint Saint Patrick. Inscriptions on the back of the shrine record that it was commissioned after 1091 by the Uí Néill High King Domnall Ua Lochlainn and completed c. 1105 by the metalworker Cú Dúilig, about whom nothing is known. Both objects are historically significant, with the bell being one of the few Irish very-early medieval artifacts with a continuous provenance lasting from around the 8th century to the present, and the shrine being a highpoint of Irish metalwork from the late Insular and early Romanesque periods.

Cormac Bourke is an Irish archeologist specialising in Medieval studies, early church history and insular Christianity. He is a former, long term, curator of Medieval Antiquities at the Ulster Museum, Belfast, and currently works at the antiquities department of the National Museum of Ireland.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shrine of St Patrick's Tooth</span>

The Shrine of St Patrick's Tooth is a medieval reliquary traditionally believed to contain a tooth belonging to Patrick, Ireland's patron saint, who lived in the 5th century. The shrine comprises a wooden case lined with bronze and decorated with gold, silver and amber fittings, and was built in two phases. Its basic structure and the central ringed crosses on either side are 12th century, while the purse-shaped form and most of the metal work, including the saints, were added in the 1370s when the object was substantially refurbished.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bell Shrine of Conall Cael</span> 9th or 10th century Irish bell-shrine

The Bell Shrine of Conall Cael is an early 12th century bell shrine found on Inishkeel island in County Donegal, Ireland. It was built to contain a 6th century bell associated with Conall Cael, a relatively obscure early Irish saint associated with Coolaun church, near Cashel in County Tipperary, and was probably created by a secular commissioner to give prestige to the locality.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bell Shrine of St. Mura</span> Bell shrine in Ireland

The Bell Shrine of St. Mura is an 11th-century Irish shrine traditionally associated with the Abbey of Fahan, County Donegal, Ireland, founded by Saint Mura. The artifact consists of a hand bell enshrined in a copper container, later embellished with sliver, gild-sliver and rock crystal additions in four phases ending in the 16th century. The first and most significant of the later phases introduced interlace, openwork and filigree patterns.

References

Notes

  1. 1 2 3 Bourke 2014, p. 305.
  2. 1 2 3 Bourke 2014, p. 304.
  3. ↑ Bourke 2014, p. 5.
  4. ↑ Bourke 2020, p. 11.
  5. ↑ Overbey 2012, p. 11.
  6. 1 2 3 Bourke 1980, p. 52.
  7. 1 2 3 Bourke 2020, p. 2.
  8. ↑ Erskine 2012, p. 74.
  9. ↑ Overbey 2012, p. 12.
  10. 1 2 3 Overbey 2012, p. 136.
  11. ↑ Bourke 1980, pp. 52, 54.
  12. ↑ Bourke 2020, p. 5.
  13. ↑ Henry 1967, p. 124.
  14. ↑ Henry 1967, p. 125.
  15. ↑ Bourke 2020, p. 1.
  16. 1 2 3 Bourke 2020, p. 95.
  17. ↑ Crawford 1923, p. 95.
  18. ↑ Overbey 2012, p. 5.
  19. ↑ Overbey 2012, p. 6.
  20. ↑ Overbey 2012, pp. 136–137, 145.
  21. ↑ Bourke 2020, p. 94.
  22. ↑ Bourke 2020, p. 9.
  23. 1 2 Mitchelli 1996, p. 8.
  24. ↑ Overbey 2012, p. 143.
  25. ↑ De Paor 1977, p. 182.
  26. ↑ Caldwell 2013, p. 209.
  27. 1 2 Caldwell 2013, p. 218.
  28. ↑ Overbey 2012, p. 137.
  29. ↑ Overbey 2012, p. 135.
  30. ↑ Bourke 2020, p. 96.
  31. ↑ Bourke 2020, p. 100.
  32. ↑ Overbey 2012, p. ix.
  33. ↑ Ó Floinn & Wallace 2002, p. 314.
  34. ↑ Bourke 2014, p. 306.
  35. ↑ "Bell shrine of St. Conall Cael". British Museum. Retrieved 22 October 2022
  36. ↑ Mitchelli 1996, p. 22.
  37. ↑ Bourke 2014, pp. 307–308.
  38. ↑ Bourke 2014, p. 309.
  39. ↑ "Iona Bell". National Museum of Scotland. Retrieved 22 October 2022
  40. ↑ Overbey 2012, p. 134.
  41. ↑ Speakman, Naomi."Bell and Bell Shrine of St. Conall Cael". Cleveland Museum of Art & Columbia University. Retrieved 7 November 2022
  42. ↑ Caldwell 2013, p. 201.
  43. ↑ Bourke 2020, p. 97.

Sources

  • Bourke, Cormac (2020). The Early Medieval Handbells of Ireland and Britain. Dublin: Wordwell. ISBN   978-0-9017-7788-1.
  • Bourke, Cormac (2014). "Bell-Shrines". In Moss, Rachel (ed.). Medieval c. 400—c. 1600: Art and Architecture of Ireland. London: Yale University Press. ISBN   978-0-3001-7919-4.
  • Bourke, Cormac (1980). "Early Irish Hand-Bells". The Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland. 110: 52–66. JSTOR   25508775.
  • Caldwell, David; et al. (2013). "The Kilmichael Glassary Bell-shrine". Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland. 142.
  • Crawford, Henry (June 1923). "A Descriptive List of Irish Shrines and Reliquaries. Part I". The Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland. 6. 13 (1): 74–93. JSTOR   25513282.
  • De Paor, Marie (1977). "The Viking Impact". Treasures of Early Irish Art, 1500 B.C. to 1500 A.D. NY: Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN   978-0-8709-9164-6.
  • Erskine, Sarah (2012). "Is the Cloc ind Édachta St Patrick's oldest and most important medieval bell-relic?". Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland. 142/143: 74–85. JSTOR   24892511.
  • Henry, Françoise (1967). "Bell-Shrines". Irish Art during the Viking Invasions (800–1020 A.D.). London: Methuen & Co. ISBN   978-0-3001-7919-4.
  • Mitchelli, Perette (1996). "The Inscriptions on Pre-Norman Irish Reliquaries". Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy: Archaeology, Culture, History, Literature. 96C (1): 1–48. JSTOR   25516156.
  • Ó Floinn, Raghnal; Wallace, Patrick (2002). Treasures of the National Museum of Ireland: Irish Antiquities. Dublin: National Museum of Ireland. ISBN   978-0-7171-2829-7.
  • Overbey, Karen (2012). Sacral Geographies: Saints, Shrines and Territory in Medieval Ireland. Turnhout: Brepols. ISBN   978-2-503-52767-3.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.