Brown recluse spider

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Brown recluse
Brown Recluse.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Subphylum: Chelicerata
Class: Arachnida
Order: Araneae
Infraorder: Araneomorphae
Family: Sicariidae
Genus: Loxosceles
Species:
L. reclusa
Binomial name
Loxosceles reclusa
Gertsch & Mulaik, 1940 [1]
Loxosceles reclusa range.png
Synonyms [1]
  • Loxosceles reclususorthographic variant

The brown recluse (Loxosceles reclusa, Sicariidae, formerly placed in a family "Loxoscelidae") is a recluse spider with necrotic venom. Similar to those of other recluse spiders, their bites sometimes require medical attention. The brown recluse is one of three spiders in North America with dangerous venom, the others being the black widow and the Chilean recluse.

Contents

Brown recluse spiders are usually between 6 and 20 millimetres (0.24 and 0.79 in), but may grow larger. While typically light to medium brown, they range in color from whitish to dark brown or blackish gray. The cephalothorax and abdomen are not necessarily the same color. These spiders usually have markings on the dorsal side of their cephalothorax, with a black line coming from it that looks like a violin with the neck of the violin pointing to the rear of the spider, resulting in the nicknames fiddleback spider, brown fiddler, or violin spider. [2]

Description

The brown recluse Loxosceles reclusa.jpg
The brown recluse
The brown recluse has three pairs of eyes, unlike most spiders. Loxosceles reclusa adult male 4.jpg
The brown recluse has three pairs of eyes, unlike most spiders.

The violin pattern is not a definitive identifier, as other spiders can have similar markings (e.g. cellar spiders and pirate spiders). Instead, while most spiders have eight eyes, recluse spiders have six eyes arranged in pairs (dyads) with one median pair and two lateral pairs. Only a few other spiders have three pairs of eyes arranged in this way (e.g., scytodids). Recluses have no obvious coloration patterns on the abdomen or legs, and the legs lack spines. [3] The violin marking can vary in intensity depending on the age of the brown recluse spider, with mature spiders typically having dark violin shapes. [4] [5]

Distribution

A large brown recluse compared to a US penny (diameter 0.75 inches or 19 millimetres) Brown-recluse-coin-edit.jpg
A large brown recluse compared to a US penny (diameter 0.75 inches or 19 millimetres)

The documented range of this species lies roughly south of a line from southeastern Nebraska through southern Iowa, Illinois, and Indiana to southwestern Ohio. In the southern states, it is native from central Texas to western Georgia and north to Kentucky. [6] [7]

Despite rumors to the contrary, the brown recluse spider has not established itself in California or anywhere outside its native range. [8] There are other species of the genus Loxosceles native to the southwestern part of the United States, including California, which may resemble the brown recluse, but interactions between humans and the recluse species in California and the region are rare because those species native ranges lie outside of dense human populations. [8] The number of "false positive" reports based on misidentifications is considerable; in a nationwide study where people submitted spiders that they thought were brown recluses, of 581 from California only one was a brown recluse—submitted by a family that moved from Missouri and brought it with them (compared to specimens submitted from Missouri, Kansas, and Oklahoma, where between 75% and 90% were recluses). [9] From this study, the most common spider submitted from California as a brown recluse was in the genus Titiotus , whose bite is deemed harmless. A similar study documented that various arachnids were routinely misidentified by physicians, pest control operators, and other non-expert authorities, who told their patients or clients that the spider they had was a brown recluse when in fact it was not. [10] Despite the absence of brown recluses from the Western U.S., physicians in the region commonly diagnose "brown recluse bites", leading to the popular misconception that the spiders inhabit those areas. [11]

Over the last century, spiders have occasionally been intercepted in locations where they have no known established populations; these spiders may be transported fairly easily, though the lack of established populations well outside the natural range also indicates that such movement has not led to the colonization of new areas, after decades of opportunities. [12] [13] Note that the occurrence of brown recluses in a single building (such as a warehouse) outside of the native range is not considered as successful colonization; such single-building populations can occur (e.g., in several such cases in Florida), [14] but do not spread, and can be easily eradicated. [15] The spider has also received numerous sensationalized media reports of bites occurring where these spiders are absent (and no specimens were found), such as a 2014 report from Thailand, where a man was claimed to have died from a brown recluse bite. [16] Many misidentifications and erroneous geographic records stem from the similarity between L. reclusa and a related introduced species, the Mediterranean recluse (Loxosceles rufescens), which is found worldwide, including numerous sightings throughout the United States; the two species are superficially almost indistinguishable, and misidentifications are common, making it difficult to distinguish which reports of recluses refer to which species. [17]

Life cycle

Adult brown recluse spiders often live about one to two years. Each female produces several egg sacs over a period of two to three months, from May to July, with approximately 50 eggs in each sac. The eggs hatch in about one month. The spiderlings take about one year to grow to adulthood. The brown recluse spider is resilient and can tolerate up to six months of extreme drought and scarcity or absence of food. On one occasion, a brown recluse survived in controlled captivity for over five seasons without any food at all. [18]

As part of the haplogynae, brown recluses do not balloon, which limits their ability to widely disperse geographically. [19] (p 63) The brown recluse will, though not habitually, cannibalize another if food becomes scarce; especially during its typical mating season from June to September or when an unreceptive female encounters an aggressive male. [19] (pp 43–44, 67)

Behavior

A brown recluse's stance on a flat surface is usually with all legs radially extended. When alarmed it may lower its body, withdraw the forward two legs straight rearward into a defensive position, withdraw the rearmost pair of legs into a position for lunging forward, and stand motionless with pedipalps raised. The pedipalps in mature specimens are dark and quite prominent and are normally held horizontally forward. When threatened it usually flees, seemingly to avoid a conflict, and if detained may further avoid contact with quick horizontal rotating movements or even resort to assuming a lifeless pose (playing dead). The spider does not usually jump unless touched brusquely, and even then its avoidance movement is more of a horizontal lunge rather than a vaulting of itself entirely off the surface. When running, the brown recluse does not leave a silk line behind, which would make it more easily tracked when it is being pursued. Movement at virtually any speed is an evenly paced gait with legs extended.

The brown recluse spider displays autotomy as a defense mechanism against physical, predatory attack to a leg as well as to prevent predatory, venom injections from spreading to the rest of the body. [19] (p 57) "Once a leg is lost, a recluse spider does not regenerate a new one with subsequent molts", [19] (p 57) unlike the huntsman spider, which does regenerate autotomized legs. With each time that a leg is autotomized, the recluse "changes its gait to compensate for the loss." [19] (p 57)

Habitat

Brown recluse spiders build asymmetrical (irregular) webs that frequently include a shelter consisting of disorderly threads. They frequently build their webs in woodpiles and sheds, closets, garages, plenum spaces, cellars, and other places that are dry and generally undisturbed. When dwelling in human residences they seem to favor cardboard, possibly because it mimics the rotting tree bark which they inhabit naturally. [20] Human-recluse contact often occurs when such isolated spaces are disturbed and the spider feels threatened. Unlike most web weavers, they leave these lairs at night to hunt. Males move around more when hunting than the females, which tend to remain nearer to their webs.

Bite

Like all members of the Loxosceles genus, the brown recluse has potent tissue-destroying venoms containing the dermonecrotic agent sphingomyelinase D. [21] Most bites are minor with no dermonecrosis, but a small number of brown recluse bites produce loxoscelism, [22] a condition where the skin around the bite dies. While loxoscelism usually manifests as a skin condition (cutaneous loxoscelism), it can also include systemic symptoms like fever, nausea, and vomiting (viscerocutaneous loxoscelism). In very rare cases, bites can even cause hemolysis – the bursting of red blood cells. [23] In one study of clinically diagnosed brown recluse bites, skin necrosis occurred 37% of the time, while systemic illness occurred 14% of the time. [24]

As suggested by its specific name reclusa (recluse), the brown recluse spider is rarely aggressive, and bites from the species are uncommon. In 2001, more than 2,000 brown recluse spiders were removed from a heavily infested home in Kansas, yet the four residents who had lived there for years were never harmed by the spiders, despite many encounters with them. [25] [26] The spider usually bites only when pressed against the skin, such as when tangled within clothes, shoes, towels, bedding, inside work gloves, etc. Many human victims report having been bitten after putting on clothes or shoes that had not been worn recently or had been left for many days undisturbed on the floor. The fangs of the brown recluse are not large enough to penetrate most fabric. [27]

When both types of loxoscelism do result, systemic effects may occur before necrosis, as the venom spreads throughout the body in minutes. Children, the elderly, and the debilitatingly ill may be more susceptible to systemic loxoscelism. The systemic symptoms most commonly experienced include nausea, vomiting, fever, rashes, and muscle and joint pain. Rarely, such bites can result in hemolysis, low platelet levels, blood clots throughout the body, organ damage, and even death. [28] Most fatalities are in children under the age of seven [29] or those with a weak immune system.

While the majority of brown recluse spider bites do not result in any symptoms, cutaneous symptoms occur more frequently than systemic symptoms. In such instances, the bite forms a necrotizing ulcer as the result of soft tissue destruction and may take months to heal, leaving deep scars. These bites usually become painful and itchy within 2–8 hours. Pain and other local effects worsen 12–36 hours after the bite, and the necrosis develops over the next few days. [30] Over time, the wound may grow to as large as 25 cm (10 inches). The damaged tissue becomes gangrenous and eventually sloughs away. L. reclusa can produce slightly more than 0.1  μL of venom, though the average yield is less. [31]

Misdiagnosis

There is an ELISA-based test for brown recluse venom that can determine whether a wound is a brown recluse bite, although it is not commercially available and not in routine clinical use. Clinical diagnoses often use Occam's razor principle in diagnosing bites based on what spiders the patient likely encountered and previous similar diagnoses. [7] [24] [32]

Stoecker, Vetter & Dyer (2017) suggested the mnemonic "NOT RECLUSE", shown below, as a memory device to help laymen and medical professionals more objectively screen and diagnose potential cases of loxoscelism. [33] [34]

NOT RECLUSE mnemonic [33]
Note that these are contrary criteria: Any one being true indicates that the injury is not a brown recluse bite.
Numerous More than one wound.
Occurrence  The injury did not occur in a place where brown recluses are likely to be found:
 Either outside of the spider's geographic territory ... or not in an enclosed space
 like a box, closet, or attic. 
Timing The wound arose sometime between November and March.
Red center The center of the wound is red.
Elevated The middle of the wound is elevated, not sunken.
Chronic The wound has persisted for more than three months.
Large The wound is more than 10 centimetres (4 inches) wide.
Ulcerates
too early		 The wound gets crusty within the first week.
Swollen The wound swells up if it's below the neck.
Exudative The wound is "wet" – oozing pus or clear fluid.

There are numerous documented infectious and noninfectious conditions that produce wounds that have been initially misdiagnosed as recluse spider bites by medical professionals, including:

Many of these conditions are far more common and more likely to be the source of necrotic wounds, even in areas where brown recluse spiders actually occur. [7] The most important of these is methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), a bacterium whose necrotic lesions are very similar to those induced by recluse bites, and which can be lethal if left untreated. [36] Misdiagnosis of MRSA as spider bites is extremely common (nearly 30% of patients with MRSA reported that they initially suspected a spider bite), and can have fatal consequences. [37]

Reported cases of brown recluse bites occur primarily in Arkansas, Colorado, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska, Oklahoma, and Texas. There have been many reports of brown recluse bites in California – though a few related species of spiders may be found there, none of the related spiders in California is known to bite humans. [8]

To date, the reports of bites from areas outside of the spider's native range have been either unverified or, if verified, the spiders have been moved to those locations by travelers or commerce.

Other spiders

For a comparison of the toxicity of several kinds of spider
bites, see the list of medically significant spider bites

Many arachnologists believe that a large number of bites attributed to the brown recluse in the U.S. West Coast are either from other spider species or not spider bites at all. Other spiders in western states that might possibly cause necrotic injuries are the hobo spider, desert recluse spider, and the yellow sac spider.

For example, the venom of the hobo spider, a common European species now established in the northwestern United States and southern British Columbia, has been reported to produce similar symptoms as the brown recluse bite when injected into laboratory rabbits. However, the toxicity of hobo spider venom has been called into question: Actual bites (rather than syringe injections) have not been shown to cause necrosis, and no necrotic hobo spider bites have ever been reported where it is native. [38]

Numerous other spiders have been associated with necrotic bites in the medical literature. Other recluse species, such as the desert recluse (found in the deserts of southwestern United States), are reported to have caused necrotic bite wounds, though only rarely. [39] The hobo spider and the yellow sac spider have also been reported to cause necrotic bites. However, the bites from these spiders are not known to produce the severe symptoms that can follow from a recluse spider bite, and the level of danger posed by these has been called into question. [40] [41]

So far, no known necrotoxins have been isolated from the venom of any of these spiders, and some arachnologists have disputed the accuracy of spider identifications carried out by bite victims, family members, medical responders, and other non-experts in arachnology. There have been several studies questioning the danger posed by some of the other spiders mentioned: In these studies, scientists examined case studies of bites in which the spider in question was identified by an expert, and found that the incidence of necrotic injury diminished significantly when "questionable" identifications were excluded from the sample set. [42] [43]

Bite treatment

First aid involves the application of an ice pack to control inflammation and prompt medical care. If it can be easily captured, the spider should be brought with the patient in a clear, tightly closed container so it may be identified by an arachnologist; if there is no specimen at all, then confirmation by an expert is impossible. [44]

Routine treatment should include immobilization of the affected limb, application of ice, local wound care, and tetanus prophylaxis. Many other therapies have been used with varying degrees of success, including hyperbaric oxygen, dapsone, antihistamines (e.g., cyproheptadine), antibiotics, dextran, glucocorticoids, vasodilators, heparin, nitroglycerin, electric shock, curettage, surgical excision, and antivenom. [45] [46] In almost all cases, bites are self-limited and typically heal without any medical intervention. [7]

Outpatient palliative care following discharge often consists of a weak or moderate strength opioid (e.g. codeine or tramadol, respectively) depending on pain scores, an anti-inflammatory agent (e.g. naproxen, cortisone), and an antispasmodic (e.g. cyclobenzaprine, diazepam), for a few days to a week. If the pain or spasms have not resolved by this time, a second medical evaluation is generally advised, and differential diagnoses may be considered.[ medical citation needed ]

Specific treatments

In presumed cases of recluse bites, dapsone is often used for the treatment of necrosis, but controlled clinical trials have yet to demonstrate efficacy. [47] However, dapsone may be effective in treating many "spider bites" because many such cases are actually misdiagnosed microbial infections. [44] There have been conflicting reports about its efficacy in treating brown recluse bites, and some have suggested it should no longer be used routinely, if at all. [48]

Wound infection is rare. Antibiotics are not recommended unless there is a credible diagnosis of infection. [49]

Studies have shown that surgical intervention is ineffective and may worsen outcomes. Excision may delay wound healing, cause abscesses, and lead to scarring. [50]

Purportedly application of nitroglycerin stopped necrosis. [51] However, one scientific animal study found no benefit in preventing necrosis, with the study's results showing it increased inflammation and caused symptoms of systemic envenoming. The authors concluded the results of the study did not support the use of topical nitroglycerin in brown recluse envenoming. [52]

Antivenom is available in South America for the venom of related species of recluse spiders. However, the bites, often being painless, usually do not present symptoms until 24 or more hours after the event, possibly limiting the effect of this intervention. [53]

Spider population control

Due to increased fear of these spiders prompted by greater public awareness of their presence in recent years, the extermination of domestic brown recluses is performed frequently in the lower midwestern United States. Brown recluse spiders possess a variety of adaptive abilities, including the ability to survive up to 10 months with no food or water. [54] Additionally, these spiders survive significantly longer in a relatively cool, thermally stable environment. [55]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hobo spider</span> Species of spider

The hobo spider is a member of the family of spiders known colloquially as funnel web spiders, but not to be confused with the Australian funnel-web spider. Individuals construct a funnel-shaped structure of silk sheeting and lie in wait at the small end of the funnel for prey insects to blunder onto their webs. Hobo spiders sometimes build their webs in or around human habitations. Despite past claims, there is no clear evidence that the hobo spider has venom that is dangerous to humans.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Recluse spider</span> Group of venomous spiders

The recluse spiders, also known as brown spiders, fiddle-backs, violin spiders, and reapers, is a genus of spiders that was first described by R. T. Lowe in 1832. They are venomous spiders known for their bite, which sometimes produces a characteristic set of symptoms known as loxoscelism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sicariidae</span> Family of spiders

Sicariidae is a family of six-eyed venomous spiders known for their potentially necrotic bites. The family consists of three genera and about 160 species. Well known spiders in this family include the brown recluse spider and the six-eyed sand spider.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mediterranean recluse spider</span> Species of spider

The Mediterranean recluse spider is a species of spider that originated in the Mediterranean region as its name implies, but can now be found in many parts of the world and is listed as one of the most invasive spiders worldwide. Usually dwelling in caves, the spiders will also inhabit basements and tunnels. Their webs shelter their egg sacs, which hatch into young that molt as they grow. The spider hunts at night and eats species including silverfish and cockroaches, and they usually target smaller insects.

Zebra is the American medical slang for a surprising, often exotic, medical diagnosis, especially when a more commonplace explanation is more likely. It is shorthand for the aphorism coined in the late 1940s by Theodore Woodward, professor at the University of Maryland School of Medicine, who instructed his medical interns: "When you hear hoofbeats behind you, don't expect to see a zebra." By 1960, the aphorism was widely known in medical circles. The saying is a warning against the statistical base rate fallacy where the likelihood of something like a disease among the population is not taken into consideration for an individual.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">White-tailed spider</span> Species of arachnid

White-tailed spiders are spiders native to southern and eastern Australia, and so named because of the whitish tips at the end of their abdomens. The body size is up to 18 mm, with a leg-span of 28 mm. Common species are Lampona cylindrata and Lampona murina. Both these species have been introduced into New Zealand.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spider bite</span> Bite caused by a spider

A spider bite, also known as arachnidism, is an injury resulting from the bite of a spider. The effects of most bites are not serious. Most bites result in mild symptoms around the area of the bite. Rarely they may produce a necrotic skin wound or severe pain.

Sphingomyelin phosphodiesterase D (EC 3.1.4.41, sphingomyelinase D) is an enzyme of the sphingomyelin phosphodiesterase family with systematic name sphingomyelin ceramide-phosphohydrolase. These enzymes catalyse the hydrolysis of sphingomyelin, resulting in the formation of ceramide 1-phosphate and choline:

<i>Sicarius</i> (spider) Genus of recluse spiders

Sicarius is a genus of recluse spiders that is potentially medically significant to humans. It is one of three genera in its family, all venomous spiders known for a bite that can induce loxoscelism. They live in deserts and arid regions of the Neotropics, and females use a mixture of sand and silk when producing egg sacs. The name is Latin for assassin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chilean recluse spider</span> Species of arachnid

The Chilean recluse spider, Loxosceles laeta, is a highly venomous spider of the family Sicariidae. In Spanish, it is known as araña de rincón, or "corner spider"; in Brazilian Portuguese, as aranha-marrom or "brown spider". It is considered by many to be the most dangerous of recluse spiders, and its bites often result in serious systemic reactions, up to and including death.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Latrodectism</span> Illness from a Latrodectus spider bite

Latrodectism is the illness caused by the bite of Latrodectus spiders. Pain, muscle rigidity, vomiting, and sweating are the symptoms of latrodectism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Loxoscelism</span> Necrotising sore caused by some spider bites

Loxoscelism is a condition occasionally produced by the bite of the recluse spiders. The area becomes dusky and a shallow open sore forms as the skin around the bite dies (necrosis). It is the only proven type of necrotic arachnidism in humans. While there is no known therapy effective for loxoscelism, there has been research on antibiotics, surgical timing, hyperbaric oxygen, potential antivenoms and vaccines. Because of the number of diseases that may mimic loxoscelism, it is frequently misdiagnosed by physicians.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arthropod bites and stings</span> Medical condition

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<i>Loxosceles deserta</i> Species of spider

Loxosceles deserta, commonly known as the desert recluse, is a recluse spider of the family Sicariidae. It is found in Mexico and the United States.

The pathophysiology of a spider bite is due to the effect of its venom. A spider envenomation occurs whenever a spider injects venom into the skin. Not all spider bites inject venom – a dry bite, and the amount of venom injected can vary based on the type of spider and the circumstances of the encounter. The mechanical injury from a spider bite is not a serious concern for humans. Some spider bites do leave a large enough wound that infection may be a concern. However, it is generally the toxicity of spider venom that poses the most risk to human beings; several spiders are known to have venom that can cause injury to humans in the amounts that a spider will typically inject when biting.

<i>Hexophthalma</i> Genus of spiders

Hexophthalma is a genus of spiders in the family Sicariidae. Although the genus was originally erected in 1878, it was merged into the genus Sicarius in the 1890s, and remained unused until revived in 2017, when it was discovered that the African species then placed in Sicarius were distinct. The English name six-eyed sand spiders is used for members of the genus, particularly Hexophthalma hahni.

<i>Loxosceles intermedia</i> Species of spider

Loxosceles intermedia, the Brazilian brown recluse spider, is a highly venomous spider species in the family Sicariidae native to Brazil and Argentina.

<i>Loxosceles gaucho</i> Species of spider

Loxosceles gaucho commonly known in English as the gaucho spider. is a highly venomous recluse spider endemic to South America.

Loxosceles similis, is a species of a venomous recluse spider endemic to South America.

References

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  2. ↑ "Brown recluse in Newburgh Indiana". Yikespest. Retrieved 5 April 2021.
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