Chironex fleckeri

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Chironex fleckeri
Avispa marina cropped.png
Chironex sp.
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Cnidaria
Class: Cubozoa
Order: Chirodropida
Family: Chirodropidae
Genus: Chironex
Species:
C. fleckeri
Binomial name
Chironex fleckeri
Southcott, 1956
Chironex fleckeri Range Map.svg
Range of Chironex fleckeri as traditionally defined, but see text.

Chironex fleckeri, commonly known as the Australian box jelly, and nicknamed the sea wasp, is a species of extremely venomous box jellyfish found in coastal waters from northern Australia and New Guinea to Indonesia, Cambodia, Malaysia and Singapore, the Philippines and Vietnam. [1] It has been described as "the most lethal jellyfish in the world", with at least 64 known deaths in Australia from 1884 to 2021. [2]

Contents

Notorious for its sting, C. fleckeri has tentacles up to 3 m (10 ft) long covered with millions of cnidocytes which, on contact, release microscopic darts delivering an extremely powerful venom. Being stung commonly results in excruciating pain, and if the sting area is significant, an untreated victim may die in two to five minutes. [3] The amount of venom in one animal is said to be enough to kill 60 adult humans. [4]

Taxonomy

Chironex fleckeri was named after North Queensland toxicologist and radiologist Doctor Hugo Flecker. [5] [6] On January 20, 1955, when a 5-year-old boy died after being stung in shallow water at Cardwell, North Queensland, Flecker found three types of jellyfish. One was an unidentified box-shaped jellyfish with groups of tentacles arising from each corner. Flecker sent it to Dr. Ronald Southcott in Adelaide, and on December 29, 1955, Southcott published his article introducing it as a new genus and species of lethal box jellyfish. [6] He named it Chironex fleckeri: the genus name a compound of the centaur Chiron in Greek mythology (whose name is probably related to Ancient Greek χείρ meaning "hand") and Latin nex meaning "murder", and the specific epithet "fleckeri" in honour of its discoverer. The name "hand of death" refers to the four appendages of C. fleckeri appearing as hands. [7]

Description

Cnidocytes from Chironex fleckeri (400x magnification) Chironex fleckeri nematocysts 01.jpg
Cnidocytes from Chironex fleckeri (400x magnification)

Chironex fleckeri is the largest of the cubozoans (collectively called box jellyfish), many of which may carry similarly toxic venom. Its bell usually reaches about 16 cm (6.3 in) in diameter but can grow up to 35 cm (14 in). [8] From each of the four corners of the bell trails a cluster of 15 tentacles. [4] The pale blue bell has faint markings; viewed from certain angles, it bears a somewhat eerie resemblance to a human head or skull. Since it is virtually transparent, the creature is nearly impossible to see in its habitat, posing significant danger to swimmers. [9]

When the jellyfish are swimming, the tentacles contract so they are about 150 mm (6 in) long and about 5 mm (0.20 in) in diameter; when they are hunting, the tentacles are thinner and extend to about 3 m (9.8 ft) long. The tentacles are covered with a high concentration of stinging cells called cnidocytes, which are activated by pressure and a chemical trigger; they react to proteinous chemicals. Box jellyfish are day hunters; at night they are seen resting on the ocean floor. [9]

In common with other box jellyfish, C. fleckeri has four eye-clusters with 24 eyes. Some of these eyes seem capable of forming images, but whether they exhibit any object recognition or object tracking is debated; it is also unknown how they process information from their sense of touch and eye-like light-detecting structures due to their lack of a central nervous system. They are attracted to light of different colors (white, red, orange, yellow, green and blue), but blue light seems to elicit a feeding behavior, as it slows down their pulsation rate and makes them stream out their tentacles. [10] Black objects, on the other hand, cause them to move away. [8]

Chironex fleckeri lives on a diet of prawns and small fish, as well as crabs and other pelagic invertebrates. [8] [11] Their only known predators are green sea turtles and leatherback turtles, whose thick skin is impenetrable to the cnidocytes of the jellyfish, among other pelagic predators. [9] [11]

Distribution and habitat

The medusa is pelagic and has been documented from coastal waters of Australia and New Guinea north to the Philippines, Malaysia, Singapore and Vietnam. [1] In Australia, it is known from the northern coasts from Exmouth to Agnes Water, but its full distribution outside Australia has not been properly identified. [1] To further confuse, the closely related and also dangerously venomous Chironex yamaguchii was first described from Japan in 2009. [12] This species has also been documented from the Philippines, [12] meaning the non-Australian records of C. fleckeri need to be rechecked. Breeding occurs in lower levels of rivers and mangrove channels. [13] [14]

Sting

Chironex fleckeri is best known for its extremely powerful "sting". The sting can produce excruciating pain accompanied by an intense burning sensation, like being branded with a red hot iron. Stings may also result in white welts and lines that may be accompanied by blistering. In some cases, the sting can cause permanent damage or death to the skin and result in scars. [15] Fatalities are most often caused by specimens of C. fleckeri that are larger than 15 cm (5.9 in). [16] If left untreated, large amounts of venom injection can cause fatality in 5 minutes. [15]

In Australia, C. fleckeri has caused at least 64 deaths since the first report in 1883, [17] but most encounters appear to result only in mild envenomation. [18] Among 225 analyzed C. fleckeri stings in Australia's Top End from 1991 to 2004, only 8% required hospital admission, 5% received antivenom and there was a single fatality (a 3-year-old child). [4] 26% experienced severe pain, while it was moderate to none in the remaining. [4] Most deaths in recent decades have been children, as their smaller body mass puts them at a higher risk of fatal envenomation. [17] When people do die, it is usually caused by a cardiac arrest occurring within minutes of the sting. [4] It takes approximately 3 metres (10 ft) of tentacle to deliver the fatal dose. [19]

The venom causes cells to become porous enough to allow potassium leakage, causing hyperkalemia, which can lead to cardiovascular collapse and death as quickly as within two to five minutes with an LD50 of 0.04 mg/kg. It was postulated that a zinc compound may be developed as an antidote. [20] Occasionally, swimmers who get stung will undergo cardiac arrest or drown before they can even get back to the shore or boat. [21]

In many cases, there will be a reaction that takes place days after the initial sting if the victim survives. This extremely itchy rash can last weeks after the initial sting. If the skin in the affected area is intact, certain creams and antihistamines may help to alleviate the symptoms. [15]

Chironex fleckeri and other jellyfish, including the Irukandji (Carukia barnesi), are abundant in the waters of northern Australia during the warmer months of the year. They are believed to drift into estuaries to breed. [22] Signs like the one pictured are erected along the coast of North Queensland to warn people of such, and few people swim during this period. Some people still do, however, putting themselves at great risk. At popular swimming spots, net enclosures are placed out in the water wherein people can swim but jellyfish cannot get in, keeping swimmers safe. [23]

Box jellyfish warning signpost at a Cape Tribulation beach in Queensland, Australia Marinesting1.jpg
Box jellyfish warning signpost at a Cape Tribulation beach in Queensland, Australia

History of sting treatment

Until 2005, treatment involved using pressure immobilisation bandages, with the aim of preventing distribution of the venom through the lymph and blood circulatory systems. This treatment is no longer recommended by health authorities, [24] due to research which showed that using bandages to achieve tissue compression provoked nematocyst discharge. [25]

The application of vinegar is recommended treatment because vinegar (4–6% acetic acid) permanently deactivates undischarged nematocysts, preventing them from opening and releasing venom. [26] A 2014 study demonstrated in vitro that while vinegar deactivates unfired nematocysts, there was also an increase in venom concentration in the solution, possibly by causing already-fired nematocysts (which still contain some venom) to release what remained. [27] However, this study has been criticized on several methodological grounds, including that the experiment was done using a model membrane that is much different from (and more simple than) human skin. Also, the researchers did not determine whether the increase in venom concentration was caused by already-discharged nematocysts releasing more venom, or if the venom that was released initially had simply leaked back out through the membrane, thus confounding the concentration measurement. [28] Despite these concerns, diluted acetic acid is still the recommended treatment. [29] In 2019, the first antidote for Australian box jellyfish sting was discovered in Australia. [30]

Reproduction

Chironex fleckeri is capable of both sexual and asexual reproduction and are oviparous. [31]

Sexual Reproduction

A fully grown and sexually mature Chironex fleckeri medusa will begin trying to find a mate in the spring season. Usually, the jellies will move from their usual habitat to a freshwater river for this hunt. If a mate is located, sperm and eggs are expelled into the water by the male and female respectively to result in fertilization. The gametes produced by the spawning process will go on to become planulae and eventually small sea wasp polyps. They will use their two tentacles to hide away from predators by hooking onto a hidden surface and feeding on plankton. The parent organisms die shortly after reproduction occurs. [31]

Asexual Reproduction (Budding)

Polyps created through spawning will begin to form entirely new clones of themselves through a process called budding. The original polyp along with the new ones will eventually become small medusa through metamorphosis and return to the ocean until they are mature. The process will then repeat once they can sexually reproduce and go back to a river to find a mate. [31]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cnidaria</span> Aquatic animal phylum having cnydocytes

Cnidaria is a phylum under kingdom Animalia containing over 11,000 species of aquatic animals found both in fresh water and marine environments, including jellyfish, hydroids, sea anemones, corals and some of the smallest marine parasites. Their distinguishing features are a decentralized nervous system distributed throughout a gelatinous body and the presence of cnidocytes or cnidoblasts, specialized cells with ejectable flagella used mainly for envenomation and capturing prey. Their bodies consist of mesoglea, a non-living, jelly-like substance, sandwiched between two layers of epithelium that are mostly one cell thick. Cnidarians are also some of the only animals that can reproduce both sexually and asexually.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cnidocyte</span> Stinging cell used by cnidarians

A cnidocyte is an explosive cell containing one large secretory organelle called a cnidocyst that can deliver a sting to other organisms. The presence of this cell defines the phylum Cnidaria. Cnidae are used to capture prey and as a defense against predators. A cnidocyte fires a structure that contains a toxin within the cnidocyst; this is responsible for the stings delivered by a cnidarian. Cnidocytes are single-use cells that need to be continuously replaced.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Portuguese man o' war</span> Marine invertebrate

The Portuguese man o' war, also known as the man-of-war or bluebottle, is a marine hydrozoan found in the Atlantic Ocean and the Indian Ocean. It is considered to be the same species as the Pacific man o' war or bluebottle, which is found mainly in the Pacific Ocean. The Portuguese man o' war is the only species in the genus Physalia, which in turn is the only genus in the family Physaliidae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Box jellyfish</span> Class of cnidarians distinguished by their cube-shaped medusae

Box jellyfish are cnidarian invertebrates distinguished by their box-like body. Some species of box jellyfish produce potent venom delivered by contact with their tentacles. Stings from some species, including Chironex fleckeri, Carukia barnesi, Malo kingi, and a few others, are extremely painful and often fatal to humans.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Irukandji syndrome</span> Medical condition

Irukandji syndrome is a condition that results from envenomation by certain box jellyfish. In rare instances the sting may result in cardiac arrest and death. The most common jellyfish involved is the Carukia barnesi, a species of Irukandji jellyfish. Those stung may experience severe or even excruciating pain.

<i>Chironex</i> Genus of jellyfishes

Chironex is a genus of box jellyfish in the family Chirodropidae. Their stings are highly venomous, and have caused human fatalities. Based on present knowledge, the genus is restricted to the central Indo-Pacific, ranging from southern Japan to northern Australia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Irukandji jellyfish</span> Species of jellyfish

The Irukandji jellyfish are any of several similar, extremely venomous species of rare jellyfish. With a very small adult size of about a cubic centimetre, they are both the smallest and one of the most venomous jellyfish in the world. They inhabit the northern marine waters of Australia, and cost the Australian government $AUD 3 billion annually through medical costs associated with stings and tourism losses. This type of jellyfish reproduces sexually with eggs and sperm. They fire their stingers into their victim, causing a condition known in humans as Irukandji syndrome, which can be fatal and difficult to immediately recognise due to the delayed effects of the venom. There are about 16 known species of Irukandji, of which Carukia barnesi, Malo kingi, Malo maxima, Malo filipina and Malo bella are the best known.

<i>Carybdea</i> Genus of jellyfishes

Carybdea is a genus of venomous box jellyfish within the family Carybdeidae that currently consists of a total of 8 species. This genus of jellyfish are often found in warm waters around the world in waters such as the Mediterranean Sea, the Pacific Ocean, and off the coast of Africa. Their sting can cause a range of effects depending on the species. These invertebrates will go through both sexual and asexual reproduction as they transform from a polyp to medusa. Carybdea have a box-shaped bell with four tentacles and eye-like sensory structures. There are distinct physical markings that differentiate many species within the genus. While Carybdea use their venom to act as predators, they are also preyed on by turtles and various fish. They feed on plankton, invertebrates, fish, and some crustaceans.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chirodropidae</span> Family of jellyfishes

Chirodropidae is a family of venomous box jellyfish within the class Cubozoa. Like other members of the order Chirodropida, they have branched pedalia, in contrast to the unbranched pedalia of box jellyfish in the order Carybdeida. Each branch houses its own individual tentacle. Nematocyst composition and type can vary among individuals within this family based on body size and life stage. Like other box jellyfish, chirodropids can be found in coastal and shallow marine areas, but they have also been found to occur at benthic depths.

<i>Malo</i> (jellyfish) Genus of jellyfishes

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<i>Carukia barnesi</i> Species of jellyfish

Carukia barnesi is an extremely venomous jellyfish found near Australia. Stings can result in Irukandji syndrome, and this species is commonly known as Irukandji jellyfish, although this name does not distinguish it from other Irukandji jellyfish such as Malo kingi.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jellyfish dermatitis</span> Medical condition

Jellyfish dermatitis is a cutaneous condition caused by stings from a jellyfish.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carukiidae</span> Family of jellyfishes

Carukiidae is a family of box jellyfish within the Cubozoa class. Carukiidae can be easily classified by their lack of cirri clumps inside the cubozoan stomach, as well as the size and the placement of their nematocysts.

<i>Carybdea marsupialis</i> Species of jellyfish

Carybdea marsupialis is a venomous species of box jellyfish, in the small family Carybdeidae within the class Cubozoa.

<i>Chironex yamaguchii</i> Species of jellyfish

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John Handyside (Jack) Barnes MBE (1922–1985) was a physician and toxinologist in Queensland, Australia. Born in Charleville he is known for his research on the box jellyfish.

<i>Chiropsoides</i> Genus of jellyfishes

Chiropsoides is a genus of box jellyfish in the family Chiropsalmidae. It is monotypic, with a single species, Chiropsoides buitendijki. The most distinct species characteristics are the shape of the gastric saccules, the pedalial canals, and the unilateral pedalial branching.

<i>Chironex indrasaksajiae</i> Species of jellyfish

Chironex indrasaksajiae, locally known as Mangkaprun Klong, Mangkaprun Sarhai or Sarong, is a species of box jellyfish in a coastal water of the northern and eastern Gulf of Thailand. It has been accused of causing fatalities in the area as it is a member of the genus Chironex.

Chiropsella bronzie is a species of box jellyfish. It is considered much less of a threat to humans than some of its relatives. The species was described in 2006, and is one of four species in the genus Chiropsella. Chiropsella bronzie can be found in shallow waters off the coast of Queensland, Australia.

<i>Tamoya haplonema</i> Species of box jellyfish

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References

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  2. ↑ Fenner PJ, Williamson JA (1996). "Worldwide deaths and severe envenomation from jellyfish stings". The Medical Journal of Australia. 165 (11–12): 658–61. doi:10.5694/j.1326-5377.1996.tb138679.x. PMID   8985452. S2CID   45032896. Archived from the original on 25 February 2012. The chirodropid Chironex fleckeri is known to be the most lethal jellyfish in the world, and has caused at least 63 recorded deaths in tropical Australian waters off Queensland and the Northern Territory since 1884
  3. ↑ Biology, 7ed. Campell & Reece[ page needed ]
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 Currie, B.J.; Jacups, S.P. (2005). "Prospective study of Chironex fleckeri and other box jellyfish stings in the "Top End" of Australia's Northern Territory". Med J Aust. 183 (11): 631–636. doi:10.5694/j.1326-5377.2005.tb00062.x. PMID   16336157. S2CID   12723307. Archived from the original on 1 December 2022. Retrieved 30 August 2020.
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  6. 1 2 Southcott, Ronald (1956). "Studies on Australian Cubomedusae, Including a New Genus and Species Apparently Harmful to Man". Marine and Freshwater Research. 7 (2): 259. doi:10.1071/mf9560254. ISSN   1448-6059 . Retrieved 17 June 2023.
  7. ↑ Robinson, Lily (1 June 2009). "Lily Robinson and Death Outside the Box: Recollections". Clinical Chemistry. 55 (6): 1256–1257. doi: 10.1373/clinchem.2009.128009 . eISSN   1530-8561. ISSN   0009-9147.
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  9. 1 2 3 Santhanam, Ramasamy (2020), Santhanam, Ramasamy (ed.), "Biology and Ecology of the Venomous Marine Box Jellyfish (Class Cubozoa)", Biology and Ecology of Venomous Marine Cnidarians, Singapore: Springer, pp. 133–168, doi:10.1007/978-981-15-1603-0_5, ISBN   978-981-15-1603-0, S2CID   212770799 , retrieved 14 June 2023
  10. ↑ Gershwin, Lisa-ann; Dawes, Peter (August 2008). "Preliminary Observations on the Response of Chironex fleckeri (Cnidaria: Cubozoa: Chirodropida) to Different Colors of Light". The Biological Bulletin. 215 (1): 57–62. doi:10.2307/25470683. eISSN   1939-8697. ISSN   0006-3185. JSTOR   25470683. PMID   18723637. S2CID   10513457.
  11. 1 2 "Sea Wasp". Oceana. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
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  13. ↑ Hamner, W. (August 1994). "Australia's box jellyfish: a killer down under". National Geographic. 186 (2): 116–130.
  14. ↑ Hartwick, R. F. (1991). "Distributional ecology and behaviour of the early life stages of the box-jellyfish Chironex fleckeri". Coelenterate Biology: Recent Research on Cnidaria and Ctenophora. Springer Netherlands. pp. 181–188. doi:10.1007/978-94-011-3240-4_25. ISBN   978-94-010-5428-7.
  15. 1 2 3 . 9 July 2016 https://web.archive.org/web/20160709201819/http://www.health.nt.gov.au/library/scripts/objectifyMedia.aspx?file=pdf/26/02.pdf. Archived from the original on 9 July 2016. Retrieved 1 December 2023.{{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
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  20. ↑ Yanagihara, Angel A.; Shohet, Ralph V. (12 December 2012). "Cubozoan Venom-Induced Cardiovascular Collapse Is Caused by Hyperkalemia and Prevented by Zinc Gluconate in Mice". PLOS ONE. 7 (12): e51368. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...751368Y. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0051368 . eISSN   1932-6203. PMC   3520902 . PMID   23251508.
  21. ↑ DeLoughery, Emma P. (28 December 2022). "There's something in the water: an overview of jellyfish, their stings, and treatment". International Maritime Health. 73 (4): 199–202. doi: 10.5603/IMH.2022.0034 . ISSN   2081-3252. PMID   36583407.
  22. ↑ Gordon, Matthew; Seymour, Jamie (27 February 2012). "Growth, Development and Temporal Variation in the Onset of Six Chironex fleckeri Medusae Seasons: A Contribution to Understanding Jellyfish Ecology". PLOS ONE. 7 (2): e31277. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...731277G. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0031277 . eISSN   1932-6203. PMC   3287992 . PMID   22384009.
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  26. ↑ Hartwick, R; Callanan V; Williamson J. (1980). "Disarming the box-jellyfish: nematocyst inhibition in Chironex fleckeri". The Medical Journal of Australia. 1 (1): 15–20. doi:10.5694/j.1326-5377.1980.tb134566.x. PMID   6102347. S2CID   204054168.
  27. ↑ Welfare, P; Little, M; Pereira, P; Seymour, J (March 2014). "An in-vitro examination of the effect of vinegar on discharged nematocysts of Chironex fleckeri". Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine. 44 (1): 30–4. PMID   24687483.
  28. ↑ Wilcox, Christie (9 April 2014). "Should we stop using vinegar to treat box jelly stings? Not yet—Venom experts weigh in on recent study". Science Sushi. Discover Magazine Blogs. Archived from the original on 6 June 2017. Retrieved 26 April 2015.
  29. ↑ Calligeros, Marissa (9 April 2014). "Vinegar still best for box jellyfish stings says top doctor". Brisbane Times. Retrieved 28 September 2022.
  30. ↑ Press, Australian Associated (1 May 2019). "Box jellyfish: Australian researchers find antidote for world's most venomous creature". The Guardian. ISSN   0261-3077 . Retrieved 4 October 2024.
  31. 1 2 3 "Chironex fleckeri-Reproduction". bioweb.uwlax.edu. Retrieved 10 November 2023.
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