Chrysomya putoria

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Chrysomya putoria
Close-up of Chrysomya (Old World blow fly) on a green leaf.jpg
Member of genus Chrysomya (Old World blow fly) on a leaf
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Diptera
Family: Calliphoridae
Genus: Chrysomya
Species:
C. putoria
Binomial name
Chrysomya putoria
(Wiedemann, 1830)

Chrysomya putoria, also known as the tropical African latrine blowfly, is a fly species belonging to the blowfly family, Calliphoridae .C. putoria is native to Africa and has recently spread to the Americas. [1] These flies pose significant health risks, especially due to their close association with human settlements. [1] Adult flies can carry pathogens, while larvae may cause myiasis by growing and feeding on the flesh of domestic animals and humans. [2] Other myiasis-causing flies in the same genus are C. bezziana and C. megacephala . C. putoria and other flies that feed on decomposing tissue are used as important tools in forensic entomology to establish the post-mortem interval, or the time elapsed since death. [2]

Contents

Description

The adult body is 8–10 mm (0.31–0.39 in) long, slightly larger than the average housefly, and metallic green, with an occasional tinge of metallic dark blue or bronze. [3] The face of C. putoria is generally dark in color. [4] Their wings are translucent, and the posterior edge of the abdomen is striped with black bands. [3] While both sexes have black frons, the female has a much broader frons located between its widely-spaced eyes. [3] This species has easily visible dusting on the upper side of its thorax, allowing it to be distinguished from many other closely related Calliphoridae species. [5]

Habitat and distribution

San Ramon, Peru, where populations of C. putoria have been studied San Ramon, Chanchamayo, Junin. 08.jpg
San Ramón, Peru, where populations of C. putoria have been studied

C. putoria originates from the tropics of the Old World, specifically Africa. [1] The fly is widely distributed across the central and southern regions of the African continent, and found in countries including Zambia, Ethiopia, and Madagascar. [6] Within the past few decades, several Chrysomya species, including C. putoria, invaded South America. [1] These flies may have been initially introduced into Brazil from Africa in the 1970s before spreading across the rest of the continent. [7] This dispersal may be connected to human mobility through the use of transportation like airplanes and ships. [1] C. putoria is now found in many South American countries, including Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Paraguay, and Peru. [1] This spread of wild fly species may have also been facilitated by the fly's strong flying skills and synanthropy, known as the ability to benefit by closely associating with human habitats. [1] As a tropical species, C. putoria prefers to inhabit warmer climates. In its native Old World habitat, this fly is generally found in areas with a temperature above 26.7 °C. [1]

Taxonomy

Members of the family Calliphoridae lay larvae in the tissue and feces of warm-blooded animals, such as in pit latrines. [8]

The African blowfly C. chloropyga is the sister species of C. putoria and also breeds on feces and decaying flesh. [9] [10] Due to morphological similarities, these flies were previously considered to be subspecies. [11] Phylogenetic analysis of cytochrome c oxidase gene sequences indicates that the two species diverged just a few thousand years ago. [9]

Chrysomya albiceps, another member of genus Chrysomya Chrysomya albiceps eating.jpg
Chrysomya albiceps , another member of genus Chrysomya

C. albiceps and C. putoria both spread to the Peruvian Andes by 1980. [1] While they broadly overlap at the elevation of 1,000 m (3,300 ft), their distributions indicate differential temperature preferences. [1] C. putoria prefers inhabiting warmer, tropical areas below 1,000 m (3,300 ft), while C. albiceps can typically be found in temperate areas between 1,000 and 3,100 m (3,300 and 10,200 ft). [1]

Life history

Egg

C. putoria eggs are approximately 1.5 mm (0.06 in) long, rod-shaped, and cream-white in color. [3]

Larva

C. putoria undergoes three larval instar stages. [3] After hatching from the egg, the larva in the first instar is 3–4 mm (0.12–0.16 in) long with 11 spine bands aligned along its 12 separate body segments. [3] In addition, a pair of spiracles can be seen on its most posterior segment with a singular spiracular opening. [3] [12] During the second instar, the larva remains cream-white in color and grows to 6–10 mm (0.24–0.39 in) in length. [3] It develops fleshy folds and a pair of spiracles along its 2nd segment. [3] The posterior spiracles now present two spiracular openings. [12] The maxillary palp and antennae are also more developed. [12] In the final instar stage, the larva reaches a length of 13 mm (0.51 in) and develops larger fleshy folds. [3] The posterior spiracles are then fully developed with three spiracular openings. [12] The spine on the anal segment has a bell-shaped appearance. [13]

Pupa

The pupal stage lasts approximately 5 days. [14] Early on, the malleable outer layer of the final instar becomes brittle and hard. [14] The surface of the pupa is rough, bumpy, and unreflective. [2] At the same time, the translucent cuticle gains creamy-white pigmentation. [14] The body transforms on the second day, taking on yellow pigmentation and increasing the size of the head and wings. [14] On the third day, the eyes turn orange and the body pigmentation shows a reddish tinge with a black stripe across the abdomen. [14] On the fourth day, three black stripes appear across the abdomen, the wings, the legs become black, and the eyes and body darken into a brown color. [14] On the fifth and final day, the body turns black, and the fly ecloses by breaking through the pupal casing. [14]

Adult

The adult female has approximately 80 ovarioles in each of her two ovaries. [15] She also has a pair of tubular sexual accessory glands that lead into the common oviduct. [16] In addition, the female has three spherical spermathecae that store sperm from males after mating. [15]

Food resources

Adult C. putoria females lay eggs on feces, decaying flesh, and rotting food matter. [16] As a result, the larvae feed and grow on these substrates. [16]

If there is a scarcity of resources, C. putoria larvae may cannibalize one another after 24 hours. [17] In addition, injured larvae leak hemolymph, which may induce cannibalistic tendencies in other larvae. [17]

Social behavior

Similar to other blowfly species, C. putoria exhibit larval gregariousness. [18] The aggregation of larvae in isolated, temporal patches of food demonstrates intraspecific and interspecific competition. [18]

Predators and pathogens

Podisus nigrispinus, a species of stinkbug, is a predator of C. putoria larvae. [19] The larvae of C. albiceps, another member of the blowfly family, are facultative predators of C. putoria larvae and the larvae of other fly species. [20] C. albiceps larvae will surround then fatally pierce the target. [20]

C. putoria are affected by pathogenic fungi Metarhizium anisopliae and Beauveria bassiana that act as parasitoids and can eventually kill. [21]

Genetics

The diploid chromosome number is 2n = 12, and all the chromosomal pairs are metacentric. [22] Their count consists of 5 autosomal pairs and a sex chromosomal pair with an XY sex-determination system. [22] Karyotype analysis indicates that the pericentromeric region of the autosomal chromosomes includes a C band, while the 3rd pair of chromosomes additionally includes an interstitial band. [22]

Physiology

Studies on the effect of temperature changes on the development of these flies found that the optimal temperature for egg survivability is between 20 and 30 °C (68 and 86 °F), consistent with the flies' preference for tropical climates. [23] C. putoria has a developmental threshold of ~13.42 °C (56.16 °F), which is relatively higher than C. chloropyga's threshold of ~10.91 °C (51.64 °F), supporting their differential adaptations to temperature. [10]

Interactions with humans

A human case of myiasis Miasis human.jpg
A human case of myiasis

Medical significance

The synanthropy of these flies is especially concerning, as their preference for human settlements may contribute to a major health impact in developing countries. [1] Since these flies often breed in latrines, they are especially dangerous pests in areas with low sanitation. [24] The effect of these flies is further compounded by their high population density and capability of widespread dispersal. [12] [14] Breeding in the feces of domestic animals, especially poultry, can spread pathogens to humans. [16] [24] Furthermore, their attraction to breeding on human and dog feces can make them vectors of diarrheal pathogens. [25] This is supported by PCR analysis showing C. putoria flies infected with E. coli , Salmonella , and Shigella . Myiasis can also occur if an adult female lays eggs inside the body of a living animal. [2]

While chemical insecticides are commonly used to control synanthropic fly populations, there are potential adverse side-effects of these chemicals on the health of humans, animals, crops, and the environment. [26] Efforts to target latrines may be effective at reducing the impact of these pests, since latrines are a major source of fly populations. [27]

Chrysomya putoria larvae have potential use in maggot therapy since their removal of dead tissue in wounds can promote the growth of new tissue. [28]

Forensic importance

Since the larvae of C. putoria and other blowfly species actively decompose cadavers, understanding their life cycle duration can be used to estimate the PMI (post-mortem interval). [29] Cocaine and other drugs in the cadaver's system can accelerate the life cycle of the larvae, therefore introducing error into PMI analysis. [30] Ongoing studies on the impact of drugs on the life cycle duration can reduce potential sources of PMI estimation errors. [30]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Forensic entomology</span> Application of insect and other arthropod biology to forensics

Forensic entomology is a branch of forensic science that uses insects found on corpses to help solve criminal cases. This includes studying the types of insects commonly found on cadavers, their life cycles, their presence in different environments, and how insect assemblages change with decomposition.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Calliphoridae</span> Family of insects in the Diptera order

The Calliphoridae are a family of insects in the order Diptera, with almost 1,900 known species. The maggot larvae, often used as fishing bait, are known as gentles. The family is known to be polyphyletic, but much remains disputed regarding proper treatment of the constituent taxa, some of which are occasionally accorded family status.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Common green bottle fly</span> Species of insect

The common green bottle fly is a blowfly found in most areas of the world and is the most well-known of the numerous green bottle fly species. Its body is 10–14 mm (0.39–0.55 in) in length – slightly larger than a house fly – and has brilliant, metallic, blue-green or golden coloration with black markings. It has short, sparse, black bristles (setae) and three cross-grooves on the thorax. The wings are clear with light brown veins, and the legs and antennae are black. The larvae of the fly may be used for maggot therapy, are commonly used in forensic entomology, and can be the cause of myiasis in livestock and pets. The common green bottle fly emerges in the spring for mating.

<i>Cynomya mortuorum</i> Species of fly

Cynomya mortuorum belongs to the order Diptera, sometimes referred to as "true flies". In English, the only common name occasionally used is "fly of the dead". It has a bluish-green appearance, similar to other Calliphoridae and is found in multiple geographic locations with a preference for colder regions. Belonging to the family Calliphoridae, it has been shown to have forensically relevant implications due to its appearance on carrion. Current research is being done to determine C. mortuorum's level of importance and usage within forensic entomology.

<i>Calliphora vomitoria</i> Species of fly

Calliphora vomitoria, known as the blue bottle fly, orange-bearded blue bottle, or bottlebee, is a species of blow fly, a species in the family Calliphoridae. Calliphora vomitoria is the type species of the genus Calliphora. It is common throughout many continents including Europe, Americas, and Africa. They are fairly large flies, nearly twice the size of the housefly, with a metallic blue abdomen and long orange setae on the gena.

<i>Chrysomya</i> Genus of flies

Chrysomya is an Old World blow fly genus of the family Calliphoridae. The genus Chrysomya contains a number of species including Chrysomya rufifacies and Chrysomya megacephala. The term “Old World blow fly” is a derivative of both the associated family, Calliphoridae, and the belief that the genus Chrysomya originated in Asia and migrated to North America only relatively recently. Chrysomya’s primary importance to the field of medico-criminal forensic entomology is due to the genus’ reliable life cycle, allowing investigators to accurately develop a postmortem interval. Chrysomya adults are typically metallic colored with thick setae on the meron and plumose arista. The name comes from the word chrysos, meaning “golden” in reference to the metallic sheen of the genus’ species, and -mya, a derivation from the word myia, meaning “fly”.

<i>Chrysomya rufifacies</i> Species of fly

Chrysomya rufifacies is a species belonging to the blow fly family, Calliphoridae, and is most significant in the field of forensic entomology due to its use in establishing or altering post mortem intervals. The common name for the species is the hairy maggot blow fly, and it belongs to the genus Chrysomya, which is commonly referred to as the Old World screwworms. This genus includes other species such as Chrysomya putoria and Chrysomya bezziana, which are agents of myiasis. C. rufifacies prefers very warm weather and has a relatively short lifecycle. It is widely distributed geographically and prefers to colonize large carcasses over small ones. The species commonly has a greenish metallic appearance and is important medically, economically, and forensically.

<i>Lucilia illustris</i> Species of insect

Lucilia illustris is a member of the fly family Calliphoridae, commonly known as a blow fly. Along with several other species, L. illustris is commonly referred to as a green bottle fly. Lucilia illustris is typically 6–9 mm in length and has a metallic blue-green thorax. The larvae develop in three instars, each with unique developmental properties. The adult fly typically will feed on flowers, but the females need some sort of carrion protein in order to breed and lay eggs.

<i>Calliphora vicina</i> Species of insect

Calliphora vicina is a member of the family Calliphoridae, which includes blow flies and bottle flies. These flies are important in the field of forensic entomology, being used to estimate the time of a person's death when a corpse is found and then examined. C. vicina is currently one of the most entomologically important fly species for this purpose because it arrives at and colonizes a body following death in consistent timeframes.

<i>Phormia regina</i> Species of fly

Phormia regina, the black blow fly, belongs to the blow fly family Calliphoridae and was first described by Johann Wilhelm Meigen.

Chrysomya villeneuvi, or hairy maggot, is a South East Asian fly species of forensic importance because the maggots of this species have been collected from human corpses.

<i>Chrysomya albiceps</i> Species of fly

Chrysomya albiceps is a species belonging to the blow fly family, Calliphoridae.

<i>Chrysomya megacephala</i> Species of fly

Chrysomya megacephala, more commonly known as the oriental latrine fly or oriental blue fly, is a member of the family Calliphoridae (blowflies). It is a warm-weather fly with a greenish-blue metallic box-like body. The fly infests corpses soon after death, making it important to forensic science. This fly is implicated in some public health issues; it can be the cause of myiasis, and also infects fish and livestock.

<i>Lucilia mexicana</i> Species of insect

Lucilia mexicana is a species of blow fly of the family Calliphoridae, one of many species known as a green bottle fly. Its habitat range extends from southwestern North America to Brazil. L. mexicana is typically 6–9 mm in length with metallic blue-green coloring. This species is very similar in appearance to L. coeruleiviridis, the primary difference being that L. mexicana has two or more complete rows of post-ocular setae. L. mexicana has the potential to be forensically important in the stored-products and medicocriminal fields, but more research is needed for the fly to be used as evidence in criminal investigations.

<i>Calliphora livida</i> Species of fly

Calliphora livida is a member of the family Calliphoridae, the blow flies. This large family includes the genus Calliphora, the "blue bottle flies". This genus is important in the field of forensic entomology because of its value in post-mortem interval estimation.

<i>Lucilia coeruleiviridis</i> Species of fly

Lucilia coeruleiviridis, formerly Phaenecia coeruleiviridis, is commonly known as a green bottle fly, because of its metallic blue-green thorax and abdomen. L. coeruleiviridis was first discovered by French entomologist Pierre-Justin-Marie Macquart in 1855. It belongs to the family Calliphoridae and is one of many forensically important Diptera, as it is often found on decaying substances. L. coeruleiviridis is one of the most ubiquitous blow fly species in the southeastern United States, particularly in the spring and fall months.

Calliphora loewi is part of the family Calliphoridae, bottle flies and blowflies, and in the genus Calliphora, blue bottle flies. The genus can be deceiving since C. loewi is not blue. Though this species is rare, it can play an important part in forensic entomology, spreading disease, and decomposing carrion. The life cycle of C. loewi is similar to the life cycle of the genus Calliphora. Since this species is rare there has not been very much research done with this species.

<i>Calliphora stygia</i> Species of fly

Calliphora stygia, commonly known as the brown blowfly, or rango tumaro in Māori, is a species of blow-fly that is found in Australia and New Zealand. The brown blowfly has a grey thorax and yellow-brown abdomen.

<i>Cochliomyia macellaria</i> Species of fly

Cochliomyia macellaria, also known as the secondary screwworm, is a species of blow fly in the family Calliphoridae. These screwworms are referred to as "secondary" because they typically infest wounds after invasion by primary myiasis-causing flies. While blow flies may be found in every terrestrial habitat, C. macellaria is primarily found in the United States, American tropics, and sometimes southern Canada. They are most common in the southeastern United States in states like Florida. C. macellaria have a metallic greenish-blue thorax and a red-orange head and eyes. These adult blowflies range from 5–8 mm in size.

<i>Chrysomya marginalis</i> Species of fly

Chrysomya marginalis, the regal blowfly, also referred to as the regal bluebottle or the bordered blowfly is an uncommon and relatively large species of fly that was described by Weidemann in 1830. It is found in Africa to the south of the Sahara, and is also found in various Middle-Eastern countries.

References

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  5. ↑ Bharti, Meenakshi (26 January 2019). "New records of Chrysomya putoria and C. thanomthini (Diptera: Calliphoridae) from India, with a revised key to the known Indian species". Journal of Threatened Taxa. 11 (1): 13188–13190. doi: 10.11609/jott.4470.11.1.13188-13190 . ISSN   0974-7907.
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  21. ↑ Caleffe, Ronaldo Roberto Tait; Oliveira, Stefany Rodrigues de; Schoffen, Rodrigo Pawloski; Junior, Verci Alves de Oliveira; Conte, Helio (2019). "Biological Control of Diptera Calliphoridae: A Review". Journal of the Entomological Research Society. 21 (2): 144–155.
  22. 1 2 3 Parise-Maltempi PP, Avancini RM (April 2001). "C-banding and FISH in chromosomes of the blow flies Chrysomya megacephala and Chrysomya putoria (Diptera, Calliphoridae)". Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz. 96 (3): 371–7. doi: 10.1590/s0074-02762001000300015 . PMID   11313646.
  23. ↑ Alonso MA, Souza CM, Linhares AX, Thyssen PJ (July 2015). "Egg Developmental Time and Survival of Chrysomya megacephala and Chrysomya putoria (Diptera: Calliphoridae) Under Different Temperatures". Journal of Medical Entomology. 52 (4): 551–6. doi: 10.1093/jme/tjv066 . PMID   26335461.
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  27. ↑ Lindsay TC, Jawara M, D'Alessandro U, Pinder M, Lindsay SW (February 2013). "Preliminary studies developing methods for the control of Chrysomya putoria, the African latrine fly, in pit latrines in The Gambia". Tropical Medicine & International Health. 18 (2): 159–65. doi:10.1111/tmi.12033. PMC   3596979 . PMID   23198767.
  28. ↑ Ferraz AC, Dallavecchia DL, da Silva DC, de Carvalho RP, da Silva Filho RG, Aguiar-Coelho VM (January 2014). "Evaluation of the influence of the antibiotic ciprofloxacin in the development of an Old World screwworm fly, Chrysomya putoria". Journal of Insect Science. 14: 3. doi:10.1093/jis/14.1.3. PMC   4199357 . PMID   25373150.
  29. ↑ Oliveira MS, Mello RP, Queiroz MM (2007). "Morphology and duration of larval instars of Chrysomya putoria (Wiedemann) (Diptera, Calliphoridae), in laboratory". Revista Brasileira de Entomologia. 51 (2): 239–245. doi: 10.1590/S0085-56262007000200016 .
  30. 1 2 de Carvalho LM, Linhares AX, Badan Palhares FA (July 2012). "The effect of cocaine on the development rate of immatures and adults of Chrysomya albiceps and Chrysomya putoria (Diptera: Calliphoridae) and its importance to postmortem interval estimate". Forensic Science International. 220 (1–3): 27–32. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2012.01.023. PMID   22341241.
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