Chrysomya bezziana

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Chrysomya bezziana
Chrysomya-bezziana-adult-larva.jpg
Chrysomya bezziana adult and larva
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Diptera
Family: Calliphoridae
Genus: Chrysomya
Species:
C. bezziana
Binomial name
Chrysomya bezziana
(Villeneuve, 1914)

Chrysomya bezziana, also known as the Old World screwworm fly or screwworm, is an obligate parasite of mammals. Obligate parasitic flies require a host to complete their development. Named to honor the Italian entomologist Mario Bezzi, this fly is widely distributed in Asia, tropical Africa, India, and Papua New Guinea. The adult can be identified as metallic green or blue with a yellow face and the larvae are smooth, lacking any obvious body processes except on the last segment.

Contents

The fly feeds on decaying organic matter, while the fly larvae feed on the living tissue of warm-blooded mammals as opposed to necrotic tissue that many other fly larvae feed on. Since the larvae can cause permanent tissue damage, C. bezziana has led to much public concern. Management procedures include both prevention of colonization of the fly and treatment of a current infestation.

Chrysomya bezziana belongs to the genus Chrysomya, which contains species like Chrysomya rufifacies and Chrysomya putoria . C. bezziana and other members of this genus can be used to estimate the post-mortem interval in forensic entomology.

Geographical distribution

Chrysomya bezziana is widely distributed throughout tropical areas in the Old World. It is most prevalent in Southeast Asia, tropical and subtropical Africa, some countries in the Middle East, India, the Malay Peninsula, the Indonesian and Philippine Islands, and Papua New Guinea. [1] C. bezziana is not found at altitudes higher than 2500 meters above sea level. [2]

In countries where Chrysomya bezziana does not exist, scientists and those in agriculture are worried that commercial flights, boats, or vehicles will distribute the fly. The climates C. bezziana thrives in are present in Australia and the Americas; the fly requires climates similar to its New World relative Cochliomyia hominivorax . [1] Spread of the pest from Papua New Guinea to Australia has become a concern for Australia, as the presence of C. bezziana could cost livestock industries up to $500 million a year. [3]

Characteristics

Chrysomya bezziana belongs to the fly family Calliphoridae. This family comprises blow flies, carrion flies and cluster flies. Other parasitic screwworms are found in this family, such as Cochliomyia hominivorax and Cochliomyia macellaria .

Adult

The body of the C. bezziana adult is typically metallic green or blue. The face of these flies is typically yellow with soft fine yellow hairs. [4] The length of an adult fly ranges between 8 and 12 millimeters. The abdominal tergites (the segments of the dorsal portion of the fly) have narrow darker bands and the legs are black or dark-brown. Only the bases of the wings are infuscated; the wings have a glassy appearance. The anterior spiracles (small openings on the surface for the respiratory system) range from dark-brown to orange. [5]

Another close relative, Chrysomya megacephala , occurs in many of the same regions as C. bezziana; therefore, it is important to be able to distinguish between the flies. The male fly can be distinguished from Chrysomya megacephala by their eye facets. C. bezziana does not have a boundary dividing the upper and lower eye facets, while C. megacephala does have a boundary distinguishing the upper and lower portions. [5] The female does not have as distinct differences and cannot be as easily distinguished from C. megacephala, but they can be identified by analyzing the frons (the uppermost part of the head of an insect). The frons of C. bezziana is more parallel, while C. megacephala has a frons that is distinctly narrow in the center. [5]

Larvae

The third-instar larvae are smooth, lacking obvious body processes except on the last segment. The posterior spiracles are not hidden in the body cavity, and the peritreme of these spiracles is open. The larvae can be distinguished from its New-World relative C. hominivorax by observing the dorsal tracheal trunks. Those of C. hominivorax are darkly pigmented from the 12th segment to the 10th or sometimes 9th segment, while those of C. bezziana are only pigmented for the last half of the 12th segment. The anterior spiracle has 4-6 lobes, with 7 on occasion. [6]

Life cycle

The female lays approximately 150–200 eggs at a time. The eggs are laid in wounds and mucous membranes of a live mammal and will hatch after 24 hours. The larvae feed on living tissue and are especially attracted to blood. The larvae will feed on the host tissue for 5–7 days while they complete their development, then they will fall to the ground to pupate. [2]

The pupal stage is temperature dependent with warm weather favoring growth. Depending on the temperature, the pupal stage can last anywhere from 1 week to 2 months. The males become sexually mature after 24 hours of leaving their puparium (the hardened shell the pupae mature in), while females take about 6–7 days to become fully sexually mature. If the weather is tropical (29 °C or 84.2 °F), the entire life cycle will last about 24 days; however, at cooler temperatures (below 22 °C or 71.6 °F), the life cycle can take 2–3 months to complete. [6]

Medical importance

Chrysomya bezziana usually infects livestock causing myiasis. Myiasis is the infestation of tissue (living or dead) on a living mammal by fly larvae. Mammals such as sheep, dogs, cattle, pigs, and even humans can become infested.

The adult female will lay her eggs on superficial wounds in live animals preferring wounds that are several days old. [4] Eggs of C. bezziana are commonly laid in the navel of newborn livestock species or on castration wounds in cattle. Eggs are also laid on open sores, ulcers, scratches externally or on mucous membranes throughout the body. Wounds as small as a tick bite are large enough for a female to lay her eggs. [2]

When the eggs hatch, the larvae burrow into the animal's living tissue and feed on it. Their common name, the "screwworm", is derived from the maggots that embed themselves into the flesh of their host in a screw-like fashion. The larvae can burrow as deep as 15 centimetres (5.9 in) into the host's living tissue. [4] As the maggots feed and cause tissue damage, the wound produces a characteristic odor, which can go unnoticed by humans. However, this odor entices female flies to the wound and encourages them to lay their eggs there as well, causing further infestation. [6]

C. bezziana is different from other fly species because tissue infestation can occur in the absence of necrotic tissue. The C. bezziana maggots may cause serious and permanent tissue damage. Extremely infested wounds can lead to death if not treated. [6] The sexually mature adult imago feeds on decomposing corpses, decaying matter, excreta, and flowers. Due to their diet, these adult flies can be a mechanical vector for pathogens. [2]

Forensic importance

Forensic entomologists give a time that, at the very earliest, the corpse could have been colonized by insects instead of giving a time of death; this is because the time of colonization is not always concurrent with the time of death. They provide the shortest post mortem interval (PMI) possible.

The adults are attracted to decaying matter and thus they can be found on dead bodies. However, because C. bezziana can cause myiasis and lay its eggs on a live mammal, it can be more complicated to determine a time of colonization. If the fly laid its eggs and the maggots hatched prior to the death of the corpse and the forensic entomologist does not take this into account, the entomologist could give an incorrect time of colonization. [7]

Public concern

Because C. bezziana is an agent of myiasis, public concern has been raised over this fly. However, most human cases documented are debilitated patients not fully capable of taking care of themselves and dressing their own wounds. Caretakers of debilitated patients are encouraged to keep the environment the patient resides in clean. Keeping the area free of decaying organic matter, such as trash, decaying plants or excreta will prevent the flies from being attracted to the patient's residence, and in turn, the patient. Caretakers should also practice good hygiene themselves to prevent bringing a screwworm with them. The public can take measures to protect themselves from this fly with basic fly-proofing methods like screens. [2]

Wounds should be cleaned and dressed properly to prevent infestation of the fly, as C. bezziana is attracted to wound fluids and blood to lay her eggs in. If a person suspects that their animal or livestock has been a victim of fly-strike, they should bring the case to the attention of their veterinarian for analysis. [8]

Management and control

Management of Chrysomya bezziana can be conducted using several different methods, depending upon the adult or larvae form.

To remove and manage the infestation of larvae in the host, the larvae may be removed with forceps. This removal process should take place daily or as often as needed until the infestation is clear. [2] These larvae can also be killed by applying proper insecticides to the infected areas and making sure the wounds are properly dressed. [8] Organophosphorus insecticides like coumaphos, dichlofenthion, and fenchlorphos can be applied to wounds with fly larvae. These cause the larvae to leave the wound and fall to the ground, and the larvae will die without a host to feed on. Castration wounds in cattle that have insect growth regulators, such as dicyclanil, have high success rates of preventing the establishment of C. bezziana. [6]

When trying to manage areas that have adult Chrysomya bezziana, one of the first tasks is to improve sanitation of the area. Many types of decaying matter serve as a food source and should be cleared out of the area. Adult flies can also be controlled by the use of insecticides. [8] A few of the insecticides that are available for use in the management of adult C. bezziana include: ectopor, diazinon, nagasunt and coumaphos. When trying to prevent infestation of livestock and other animals, proper spraying and dipping with these insecticides can help in management control. [6]

Sterile insect technique

The sterile insect technique (SIT), also known as sterile insect release method (SIRM), is a control method in which sterile insects are released to mate with other wild insects. Usually, the males are sterilized using radiation and then dispersed in a population to compete with wild males. If a sterile male mates with a wild female, she will produce no offspring, reducing the new population.

There have been studies involving Chrysomya bezziana and the sterile insect technique. In 1989, an experiment proved that SIRM had success rates similar to its New World relative Cochliomya hominivorax, [9] which was successfully eradicated from North America in 1982. [10] The success of SIT as an eradication method depends on the number of sterile insects released, on how competitive the sterile insects are in relation to their wild counterparts, and on whether the female insect mates multiple times. [9] SIT is supported by the extensive use of pesticides. [11] To this date, however, Chrysomya bezziana has not been eradicated using this method.

Vaccination

In 2000, vaccination of livestock against Chrysomya bezziana was explored. The results were promising in-vitro (outside of the body in controlled environments, like a petri dish) and in-vivo (tested with living animals). The animals vaccinated led to C. bezziana larvae with lower weights. The effects of larvae with lower weights could lessen the damage caused to the living tissue of the maggots, and it is possible that it could also reduce the fly development. The potential of vaccination as a control source was still unresolved, as the immunological mechanisms are very complex and follow-up studies need to be conducted. [11]

Case studies

A case study reported in 2009 involving Chrysomya bezziana included a 65-year-old woman with skin cancer. The woman had facial squamous cell carcinoma (SCC). A tumor developed as an ulcer on her left cheek and the woman did not keep the wound covered. When the ulcer began to spread, she did not seek any treatment for the myiasis for two years. Ultimately, the case was handled by removal of the larvae using forceps until about 60 larvae were removed. The patient was discharged and two days later returned to have 10 more larvae removed from her face. Infestation of Chrysomya bezziana in cancerous wounds is very rare and most of the cases deal with SCC among elderly patients. [12]

Many cases among humans involve infestation of the oral cavity. Early reported cases of infestation of the mouth were found in India in 1946. [13] According to the Communicable Diseases Watch newsletter, 11 of the 21 infestations in Hong Kong between October 2002 and December 2004 were in the oral cavity. [14]

Another case study, reported in 2008, involved a 9-year-old boy in Indonesia. He was hospitalized due to maggots inside his right ear. The maggots were removed, and while the patient was recovering, it was noticed that the right eye was red. Upon examination, a maggot was found inside a lesion in the bulbar conjunctiva, and this maggot was then removed. [15]

Current research

According to a pest control officer for the Food and Hygiene Department in 2009, the Hong Kong government (where many of the case studies are published) is unaware of any research in this field. [16] The most recent research done on this fly was published in January 2008 and involved identifying fly eggs using a scanning electron microscope for use in forensic investigations. [17]

It is not a suitable fly for research in maggot therapy, because it can cause permanent damage by feeding on the underlying tissues, so most studies published on the subject do not include C. bezziana. [18]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Forensic entomology</span> Application of insect and other arthropod biology to forensics

Forensic entomology is the scientific study of the colonization of a dead body by arthropods. This includes the study of insect types commonly associated with cadavers, their respective life cycles, their ecological presences in a given environment, as well as the changes in insect assemblage with the progression of decomposition. Insect succession patterns are identified based on the time a given species of insect spends in a given developmental stage, and how many generations have been produced since the insects introduction to a given food source. Insect development alongside environmental data such as temperature and vapor density, can be used to estimate the time since death, due to the fact that flying insects are attracted to a body immediately after death. The identification of postmortem interval to aid in death investigations is the primary scope of this scientific field. However, forensic entomology is not limited to homicides, it has also been used in cases of neglect and abuse, in toxicology contexts to detect the presence of drugs, and in dry shelf food contamination incidents. Equally, insect assemblages present on a body, can be used to approximate a given location, as certain insects may be unique to certain areas. Therefore, forensic entomology can be divided into three subfields: urban, stored-product and medico-legal/medico-criminal entomology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Maggot</span> Larva of a fly

A maggot is the larva of a fly ; it is applied in particular to the larvae of Brachycera flies, such as houseflies, cheese flies, and blowflies, rather than larvae of the Nematocera, such as mosquitoes and crane flies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Calliphoridae</span> Family of insects in the Diptera order

The Calliphoridae are a family of insects in the order Diptera, with almost 1,900 known species. The maggot larvae, often used as fishing bait, are known as gentles. The family is known to be polyphyletic, but much remains disputed regarding proper treatment of the constituent taxa, some of which are occasionally accorded family status.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Botfly</span> Parasitic insect

Botflies, also known as warble flies, heel flies, and gadflies, are a family of flies known as the Oestridae. Their larvae are internal parasites of mammals, some species growing in the host's flesh and others within the gut. Dermatobia hominis is the only species of botfly known to parasitize humans routinely, though other species of flies cause myiasis in humans.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Myiasis</span> Infestation of parasitic maggots

Myiasis, also known as flystrike or fly strike, is the parasitic infestation of the body of a live animal by fly larvae (maggots) that grow inside the host while feeding on its tissue. Although flies are most commonly attracted to open wounds and urine- or feces-soaked fur, some species can create an infestation even on unbroken skin and have been known to use moist soil and non-myiatic flies as vector agents for their parasitic larvae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Common green bottle fly</span> Species of insect

The common green bottle fly is a blowfly found in most areas of the world and is the most well-known of the numerous green bottle fly species. Its body is 10–14 mm (0.39–0.55 in) in length – slightly larger than a house fly – and has brilliant, metallic, blue-green or golden coloration with black markings. It has short, sparse, black bristles (setae) and three cross-grooves on the thorax. The wings are clear with light brown veins, and the legs and antennae are black. The larvae of the fly may be used for maggot therapy, are commonly used in forensic entomology, and can be the cause of myiasis in livestock and pets. The common green bottle fly emerges in the spring for mating.

<i>Cochliomyia hominivorax</i> Species of fly

Cochliomyia hominivorax, the New World screw-worm fly, or screw-worm for short, is a species of parasitic fly that is well known for the way in which its larvae (maggots) eat the living tissue of warm-blooded animals. It is present in the New World tropics. There are five species of Cochliomyia but only one species of screw-worm fly in the genus is parasitic; there is also a single Old World species in a different genus. Infestation of a live vertebrate animal by a maggot is technically called myiasis. While the maggots of many fly species eat dead flesh, and may occasionally infest an old and putrid wound, screw-worm maggots are unusual because they attack healthy tissue.

<i>Chrysomya putoria</i> Species of fly

Chrysomya putoria, also known as the tropical African latrine blowfly, is a fly species belonging to the blowfly family, Calliphoridae.C. putoria is native to Africa and has recently spread to the Americas. These flies pose significant health risks, especially due to their close association with human settlements. Adult flies can carry pathogens, while larvae may cause myiasis by growing and feeding on the flesh of domestic animals and humans. Other myiasis-causing flies in the same genus are C. bezziana and C. megacephala. C. putoria and other flies that feed on decomposing tissue are used as important tools in forensic entomology to establish the post-mortem interval, or the time elapsed since death.

<i>Chrysomya</i> Genus of flies

Chrysomya is an Old World blow fly genus of the family Calliphoridae. The genus Chrysomya contains a number of species including Chrysomya rufifacies and Chrysomya megacephala. The term “Old World blow fly” is a derivative of both the associated family, Calliphoridae, and the belief that the genus Chrysomya originated in Asia and migrated to North America only relatively recently. Chrysomya’s primary importance to the field of medico-criminal forensic entomology is due to the genus’ reliable life cycle, allowing investigators to accurately develop a postmortem interval. Chrysomya adults are typically metallic colored with thick setae on the meron and plumose arista. The name comes from the word chrysos, meaning “golden” in reference to the metallic sheen of the genus’ species, and -mya, a derivation from the word myia, meaning “fly”.

<i>Cochliomyia</i> Genus of insects

Cochliomyia is a genus in the family Calliphoridae, known as blowflies, in the order Diptera. Cochliomyia is commonly referred to as the New World screwworm flies, as distinct from Old World screwworm flies. Four species are in this genus: C. macellaria, C. hominivorax, C. aldrichi, and C. minima. C. hominivorax is known as the primary screwworm because its larvae produce myiasis and feed on living tissue. This feeding causes deep, pocket-like lesions in the skin, which can be very damaging to the animal host. C. macellaria is known as the secondary screwworm because its larvae produce myiasis, but feed only on necrotic tissue. Both C. hominivorax and C. macellaria thrive in warm, tropical areas.

<i>Chrysomya rufifacies</i> Species of fly

Chrysomya rufifacies is a species belonging to the blow fly family, Calliphoridae, and is most significant in the field of forensic entomology due to its use in establishing or altering post mortem intervals. The common name for the species is the hairy maggot blow fly, and it belongs to the genus Chrysomya, which is commonly referred to as the Old World screwworms. This genus includes other species such as Chrysomya putoria and Chrysomya bezziana, which are agents of myiasis. C. rufifacies prefers very warm weather and has a relatively short lifecycle. It is widely distributed geographically and prefers to colonize large carcasses over small ones. The species commonly has a greenish metallic appearance and is important medically, economically, and forensically.

<i>Lucilia illustris</i> Species of insect

Lucilia illustris is a member of the fly family Calliphoridae, commonly known as a blow fly. Along with several other species, L. illustris is commonly referred to as a green bottle fly. Lucilia illustris is typically 6–9 mm in length and has a metallic blue-green thorax. The larvae develop in three instars, each with unique developmental properties. The adult fly typically will feed on flowers, but the females need some sort of carrion protein in order to breed and lay eggs.

Entomological evidence is legal evidence in the form of insects or related artifacts and is a field of study in forensic entomology. Such evidence is used particularly in medicolegal and medicocriminal applications due to the consistency of insects and arthropods in detecting decomposition quickly. Insect evidence is customarily used to determine post-mortem interval (PMI) but can also be used as evidence of neglect or abuse. It can indicate how long a person was abused/neglected as well as provide important insights into the amount of bodily care given to the neglected or abused person.

<i>Chrysomya albiceps</i> Species of fly

Chrysomya albiceps is a species belonging to the blow fly family, Calliphoridae.

<i>Chrysomya megacephala</i> Species of fly

Chrysomya megacephala, more commonly known as the oriental latrine fly or oriental blue fly, is a member of the family Calliphoridae (blowflies). It is a warm-weather fly with a greenish-blue metallic box-like body. The fly infests corpses soon after death, making it important to forensic science. This fly is implicated in some public health issues; it can be the cause of myiasis, and also infects fish and livestock.

Lucilia thatuna belongs to the family Calliphoridae, the species most commonly referred to as the blowflies, and the genus Lucilia. Along with several other species of Lucilia, L. thatuna is commonly referred to as a green bottle fly. L. thatuna is very scarce and not much is known about this particular fly. It has been noted to reside in mountainous regions of the northwestern United States.

<i>Lucilia cuprina</i> Species of fly

Lucilia cuprina, formerly named Phaenicia cuprina, the Australian sheep blowfly is a blow fly in the family Calliphoridae. It causes the condition known as "sheep strike"'. The female fly locates a sheep with ideal conditions, such as an open wound or a build-up of faeces or urine in the wool, in which she lays her eggs. The emerging larvae cause large lesions on the sheep, which may prove to be fatal.

<i>Cynomya cadaverina</i> Species of fly

Cynomya cadaverina, also known as the shiny blue bottle fly, is a member of the family Calliphoridae, which includes blow flies as well as bottle flies. In recent years, this family has become a forensically important facet in many medicocriminal investigations in the growing field of forensic entomology. C. cadaverina is specifically important in determining a post-mortem interval, as well as other important factors.

<i>Protophormia terraenovae</i> Species of fly

Protophormia terraenovae is commonly called northern blowfly, blue-bottle fly or blue-assed fly. It is distinguished by its deep blue coloration and large size and is an important species throughout the Northern Hemisphere. This fly is notable for its economic effect as a myiasis pest of livestock and its antibiotic benefits in maggot therapy. Also of interest is P. terraenovae’s importance in forensic investigations: because of their temperature-dependent development and their prominent presence on corpses, the larvae of this species are useful in minimum post-mortem interval (mPMI) determination.

<i>Cochliomyia macellaria</i> Species of fly

Cochliomyia macellaria, also known as the secondary screwworm, is a species of blow fly in the family Calliphoridae. These screwworms are referred to as "secondary" because they typically infest wounds after invasion by primary myiasis-causing flies. While blow flies may be found in every terrestrial habitat, C. macellaria is primarily found in the United States, American tropics, and sometimes southern Canada. They are most common in the southeastern United States in states like Florida. C. macellaria have a metallic greenish-blue thorax and a red-orange head and eyes. These adult blowflies range from 5–8 mm in size.

References

  1. 1 2 Sutherst R.W., Spradbery J.P., & Maywald G.F. “The potential geographical distribution of the Old World screwworm fly, Chrysomya bezziana.” Med. Vet. Entomol 1989; 3:273–280.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 HA Central Committee on Infections. Fact Sheet on Chrysomya bezziana. Oct. 2002. Hospital Authority. Mar. 2009 <http://www3.ha.org.hk/idctc/document/Fact_Sheet_on_Chrysomya_bezziana_200501Final.pdf>.
  3. ↑ "Pests of Animals: Screw-worm fly." Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service. Apr. 2007. Australian Government. Mar. 2009 <http://www.daff.gov.au/aqis/quarantine/naqs/naqs-fact-sheets/screw-worm-fly Archived 2009-06-05 at the Wayback Machine >.
  4. 1 2 3 Filth Flies- Significance, Surveillance and Control in Contingency Operations. Mar. 2006. Armed Forces Pest Management Board. Mar. 2009 <http://www.afpmb.org/pubs/tims/TG30/TG30.htm#sec37 Archived 2009-03-03 at the Wayback Machine >.
  5. 1 2 3 Old World Screwworm Fly (Chrysomya bezziana). May 2005. Pests and Disease Image Library. Mar. 2009 <http://www.padil.gov.au/viewPestDiagnosticImages.aspx?id=62 Archived 2008-08-02 at the Wayback Machine >.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Manual of Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals 2008: Mammals, Birds and Bees. Vol. 6. Office Intl Des Epizooties, 2008.
  7. ↑ Sukontason, K., P. Narongchai, D. Sripakdee, N. Boonchu, T. Chaiwong, R. Ngern-Klun, S. Piangjai, and K. Sukontason. "First Report of Human Myiasis Caused by Chrysomya megacephala and Chrysomya rufifacies (Diptera: Calliphoridae) in Thailand, and Its Implication in Forensic Entomology." Journal of Medical Entomology 42 (2005): 702-04.
  8. 1 2 3 "Chrysomya bezziana." Food and Environmental Hygiene Department. 07 Mar. 2006. Government of Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. 12 Mar. 2009 < http://www.fehd.gov.hk/safefood/pest-post-chrysomya.html Archived 2007-11-10 at the Wayback Machine >.
  9. 1 2 Spradbery, J. P., R. S. Tozet, J. M. Robb, and P. Cassells. "The screw-worm fly Chrysomya bezziana villeneuve (Diptera: Calliphoridae) in a sterile insect release trial in Papua New Guinea." Researches on Population Ecology 31 (1989): 353-56.
  10. ↑ Rechcigl, Jack E. Biological and biotechnological control of insect pests. Boca Raton, Fla: Lewis, 1998.
  11. 1 2 Sukarsih , Sutijono Partoutomo , Edi Satria , Gene Wijffels , George Riding , Craig Eisemann & Peter Willadsen. "Vaccination against the Old World screwworm fly (Chrysomya bezziana)." Parasite Immunology 22 (2000): 545-52.
  12. ↑ Yaghoobi R, Bagherani N. “Chrysomya bezziana infestation in a neglected squamous cell carcinoma on the face.” Indian J Dermatol Venereol Leprol 2009;75:81-2.
  13. ↑ Grennan S. "A case of oral myiasis." Br Dent J 1946; 80: 274 and "From the archive: Grubs, fire bombs, India and a paper in the British Dental Journal" Br Dent J 2014; 217: 216-217.
  14. ↑ Hong, Leung Yiu. "A case of Chrysomya bezziana infestation in a breast mass." Communicable Diseases Watch 2 (Dec. & Jan. 2004-2005): 2.
  15. ↑ Alhady, M., K. Zabri, and C. N. Chua. "Ophthalmomyiasis from Chrysomyia bezziana (screwworm fly).”Medical Journal of Malaysia 63 (2008): 269-70.
  16. ↑ Yuen, M. C. "Chrysomya Bezziana Research." E-mail to the author. Mar. 2009.
  17. ↑ Mendonça, Paloma Martins. "Identification of fly eggs using scanning electron microscopy for forensic investigations." Micron 39 (2008): 802-07.
  18. ↑ Jones, Gemma, and Richard Wall. "Maggot-therapy in veterinary medicine." Research in Veterinary Medicine 85 (2008): 394-398.
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