Clownfish

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Clownfish
Amphiprion ocellaris (Clown anemonefish) by Nick Hobgood.jpg
Ocellaris clownfish (Amphiprion ocellaris)
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Clade: Percomorpha
(unranked): Ovalentaria
Family: Pomacentridae
Subfamily: Amphiprioninae
Allen, 1975
Genera

Clownfish or anemonefish are fishes from the subfamily Amphiprioninae in the family Pomacentridae. Thirty species of clownfish are recognized: one in the genus Premnas , while the remaining are in the genus Amphiprion . In the wild, they all form symbiotic mutualisms with sea anemones. Depending on the species, anemonefish are overall yellow, orange, or a reddish or blackish color, and many show white bars or patches. The largest can reach a length of 17 cm (6+1⁄2 in), while the smallest barely achieve 7–8 cm (2+3⁄4–3+1⁄4 in).

Contents

Distribution and habitat

Anemonefish are endemic to the warmer waters of the Indian Ocean, including the Red Sea, and Pacific Ocean, the Great Barrier Reef, Southeast Asia, Japan, and the Indo-Malaysian region. While most species have restricted distributions, others are widespread. Anemonefish typically live at the bottom of shallow seas in sheltered reefs or in shallow lagoons. No anemonefish are found in the Atlantic. [1]

Diet

Ocellaris clownfish nestled in a magnificent sea anemone (Heteractis magnifica) Amphiprion ocellaris (Clown anemonefish) in Heteractis magnifica (Sea anemone).jpg
Ocellaris clownfish nestled in a magnificent sea anemone (Heteractis magnifica)

Anemonefish are omnivorous and can feed on undigested food from their host anemones, and the fecal matter from the anemonefish provides nutrients to the sea anemone. Anemonefish primarily feed on small zooplankton from the water column, such as copepods and tunicate larvae, with a small portion of their diet coming from algae, with the exception of Amphiprion perideraion , which primarily feeds on algae. [2] [3]

Symbiosis and mutualism

Anemonefish and sea anemones have a symbiotic, mutualistic relationship, each providing many benefits to the other. The individual species are generally highly host specific. The sea anemone protects the anemonefish from predators, as well as providing food through the scraps left from the anemone's meals and occasional dead anemone tentacles, and functions as a safe nest site. In return, the anemonefish defends the anemone from its predators and parasites. [4] [5] The anemone also picks up nutrients from the anemonefish's excrement. [6] The nitrogen excreted from anemonefish increases the number of algae incorporated into the tissue of their hosts, which aids the anemone in tissue growth and regeneration. [3] The activity of the anemonefish results in greater water circulation around the sea anemone, [7] and it has been suggested that their bright coloring might lure small fish to the anemone, which then catches them. [8] Studies on anemonefish have found that they alter the flow of water around sea anemone tentacles by certain behaviors and movements such as "wedging" and "switching". Aeration of the host anemone tentacles allows for benefits to the metabolism of both partners, mainly by increasing anemone body size and both anemonefish and anemone respiration. [9]

Bleaching of the host anemone can occur when warm temperatures cause a reduction in algal symbionts within the anemone. Bleaching of the host can cause a short-term increase in the metabolic rate of resident anemonefish, probably as a result of acute stress. [10] Over time, however, there appears to be a down-regulation of metabolism and a reduced growth rate for fish associated with bleached anemones. These effects may stem from reduced food availability (e.g. anemone waste products, symbiotic algae) for the anemonefish. [11]

Several theories are given about how they can survive the sea anemone venom:

Anemonefish are the best known example of fish that are able to live among the venomous sea anemone tentacles, but several others occur, including juvenile threespot dascyllus, certain cardinalfish (such as Banggai cardinalfish), incognito (or anemone) goby, and juvenile painted greenling. [13] [14] [15]

Reproduction

Clownfish swimming movements Nemo clown fish 1.gif
Clownfish swimming movements

In a group of anemonefish, a strict dominance hierarchy exists. The largest and most aggressive female is found at the top. Only two anemonefish, a male and a female, in a group reproduce – through external fertilization. Anemonefish are protandrous sequential hermaphrodites, meaning they develop into males first, and when they mature, they become females. If the female anemonefish is removed from the group, such as by death, one of the largest and most dominant males becomes a female. [16] The remaining males move up a rank in the hierarchy. Clownfish live in a hierarchy, like hyenas, except smaller and based on size not sex, and order of joining/birth.[ citation needed ]

Anemonefish lay eggs on any flat surface close to their host anemones. In the wild, anemonefish spawn around the time of the full moon. Depending on the species, they can lay hundreds or thousands of eggs. The male parent guards the eggs until they hatch about 6–10 days later, typically two hours after dusk. [17]

Parental investment

A pair of pink anemonefish (Amphiprion perideraion) in their anemone home Skunk anemonefish.jpg
A pair of pink anemonefish ( Amphiprion perideraion ) in their anemone home

Anemonefish colonies usually consist of the reproductive male and female and a few male juveniles, which help tend the colony. [18] Although multiple males cohabit an environment with a single female, polygamy does not occur and only the adult pair exhibits reproductive behavior. However, if the female dies, the social hierarchy shifts with the breeding male exhibiting protandrous sex reversal to become the breeding female. The largest juvenile then becomes the new breeding male after a period of rapid growth. [19] The existence of protandry in anemonefish may rest on the case that nonbreeders modulate their phenotype in a way that causes breeders to tolerate them. This strategy prevents conflict by reducing competition between males for one female. For example, by purposefully modifying their growth rate to remain small and submissive, the juveniles in a colony present no threat to the fitness of the adult male, thereby protecting themselves from being evicted by the dominant fish. [20]

Video of a cinnamon clownfish swimming around an anemone

The reproductive cycle of anemonefish is often correlated with the lunar cycle. Rates of spawning for anemonefish peak around the first and third quarters of the moon. The timing of this spawn means that the eggs hatch around the full moon or new moon periods. One explanation for this lunar clock is that spring tides produce the highest tides during full or new moons. Nocturnal hatching during high tide may reduce predation by allowing for a greater capacity for escape. Namely, the stronger currents and greater water volume during high tide protect the hatchlings by effectively sweeping them to safety. Before spawning, anemonefish exhibit increased rates of anemone and substrate biting, which help prepare and clean the nest for the spawn. [19]

Before making the clutch, the parents often clear an oval-shaped clutch varying in diameter for the spawn. Fecundity, or reproductive rate, of the females, usually ranges from 600 to 1,500 eggs depending on her size. In contrast to most animal species, the female only occasionally takes responsibility for the eggs, with males expending most of the time and effort. Male anemonefish care for their eggs by fanning and guarding them for 6 to 10 days until they hatch. In general, eggs develop more rapidly in a clutch when males fan properly, and fanning represents a crucial mechanism for successfully developing eggs. This suggests that males can control the success of hatching an egg clutch by investing different amounts of time and energy toward the eggs. For example, a male could choose to fan less in times of scarcity or fan more in times of abundance. Furthermore, males display increased alertness when guarding more valuable broods, or eggs in which paternity is guaranteed. Females, though, display generally less preference for parental behavior than males. All these suggest that males have increased parental investment towards eggs compared to females. [21]

Clownfish hatchlings undergo development after hatching in regards to both their body size and fins. If maintained at the demanded thermal regulation, Clownfish undergo proper development of their fins. According to the Aquatic Living Resouce Vol.25 (Slembrouck, Baras, & Legendre, (2012) Clownfish follow the ensuing order in their fin development "Pectorals < caudal < dorsal = anal < pelvic". The early larval stage is crucial to ensure a healthy progression of growth. [22]

Taxonomy

Historically, anemonefish have been identified by morphological features and color pattern in the field, while in a laboratory, other features such as scalation of the head, tooth shape, and body proportions are used. [2] These features have been used to group species into six complexes: percula, tomato, skunk, clarkii, saddleback, and maroon. [23] As can be seen from the gallery, each of the fish in these complexes has a similar appearance. Genetic analysis has shown that these complexes are not monophyletic groups, particularly the 11 species in the A. clarkii group, where only A. clarkii and A. tricintus are in the same clade, with six species,A . allardiA. bicinctus, A. chagosensis, A. chrosgaster, A. fuscocaudatus, A. latifasciatus, and A. omanensis being in an Indian clade, A. chrysopterus having monospecific lineage, and A. akindynos in the Australian clade with A. mccullochi. [24] Other significant differences are that A. latezonatus also has monospecific lineage, and A. nigripes is in the Indian clade rather than with A. akallopisos, the skunk anemonefish. [25] A. latezonatus is more closely related to A. percula and Premnas biaculeatus than to the saddleback fish with which it was previously grouped. [26] [25]

Obligate mutualism was thought to be the key innovation that allowed anemonefish to radiate rapidly, with rapid and convergent morphological changes correlated with the ecological niches offered by the host anemones. [26] The complexity of mitochondrial DNA structure shown by genetic analysis of the Australian clade suggested evolutionary connectivity among samples of A. akindynos and A. mccullochi that the authors theorize was the result of historical hybridization and introgression in the evolutionary past. The two evolutionary groups had individuals of both species detected, thus the species lacked reciprocal monophyly. No shared haplotypes were found between species. [27]

Phylogenetic relationships

Scientific nameCommon name Clade [24] Compleximage
Genus Amphiprion: [28]
Amphiprion akallopisos Skunk anemonefishA. akallopisosSkunk Amphiprion akallopisos 13376076.jpg
A. akindynos AustralianA. clarkii Amphiprion akindynos.jpg
A. allardi Allard's anemonefishIndianA. clarkii Amphiprion allardi in the UShaka Sea World 1038.jpg
A. barberi Barber's anemonefishA. ephippium A. ephippium Amphiprion barberi.jpg
A. bicinctus Two-band anemonefishIndianA. clarkii Amphiprion bicinctus by Patryk Krzyzak.jpg
A. chagosensis Chagos anemonefishIndianA. clarkii A, chagosensis 2.jpg
A. chrysogaster Mauritian anemonefishIndianA. clarkii Pomacentridae Amphiprion chrysogaster 1.jpg
A. chrysopterus Orange-fin anemonefish Monospecific lineageA. clarkii Diving at Siaes Tunnel, Palau.jpg
A. clarkii Clark's anemonefishA. clarkiiA. clarkii Amphiprion clarkii sipadan.jpg
A. ephippium Red saddleback anemonefishA. ephippiumA. ephippium Amphiprion ephippium.jpg
A. frenatus Tomato anemonefishA. ephippiumA. ephippium Tomato clownfish, Amphiprion frenatus.jpg
A. fuscocaudatus Seychelles anemonefishIndian [n 1] Clarkii Amphiprion fuscocaudatus.jpg
A. latezonatus Wide-band anemonefish Monospecific lineageSaddleback Amphiprion latezonatus, Norfolk.jpg
A. latifasciatus Madagascar anemonefishIndianA. clarkii Moheli-Poisson clown.jpg
A. leucokranos White-bonnet anemonefishLikely hybridSkunk Amphiprion leucokranos.jpg
A. mccullochi Whitesnout anemonefishAustralianA. ephippium Amphiprion mccullochi RLS3.jpg
A. melanopus Red and black anemonefishA. ephippium A. ephippium Amphiprion melanopus RLS.jpg
A. nigripes Maldive anemonefishIndianSkunk Pomacentridae - Amphiprion nigripes.jpg
A. ocellaris False clown anemonefishPerculaClownfish Amphiprion ocellaris (1).jpg
A. omanensis Oman anemonefishIndianA. clarkii Amphiprion omanensis.TIF
A. pacificus Pacific anemonefishA. akallopisosSkunk Aqua 16 3 Amphi 4c46fc294148b.jpg
A. percula Clown anemonefishPerculaClownfish A. percula.jpg
A. perideraion Pink skunk anemonefishA. akallopisosSkunk Amphiprion perideraion - Wilhelma 01.jpg
A. polymnus Saddleback anemonefishA. polymnusSaddleback Amphiprion Species.JPG
A. rubrocinctus Australian anemonefishA. ephippiumA. ephippium Amphiprion rubrocinctus RLS.jpg
A. sandaracinos Orange anemonefishA. akallopisosSkunk Orange skunk clownfish (Amphiprion sandaracinos) (35272137194).jpg
A. sebae Sebae anemonefishA. polymnusSaddleback Clownfish-mileswu.jpg
A. thiellei Thielle's anemonefishLikely hybridSkunk
A. tricinctus Three-band anemonefishClarkiiClarkii Amphiprion tricinctus 11-2022.JPG
Genus Premnas: [29]
Premnas biaculeatus Maroon anemonefishPerculaMaroon Premnas biaculeatus juvenile.jpg

Morphological diversity by complex

In the aquarium

Anemonefish make up approximately 43% of the global marine ornamental trade, and approximately 25% of the global trade comes from fish bred in captivity, while the majority is captured from the wild, [30] [31] accounting for decreased densities in exploited areas. [32] Public aquaria and captive-breeding programs are essential to sustain their trade as marine ornamentals, and has recently become economically feasible. [33] [34] It is one of a handful of marine ornamentals whose complete lifecycle has been in closed captivity. Members of some anemonefish species, such as the maroon clownfish, become aggressive in captivity; others, like the false percula clownfish, can be kept successfully with other individuals of the same species. [35]

When a sea anemone is not available in an aquarium, the anemonefish may settle in some varieties of soft corals, or large polyp stony corals. [36] Once an anemone or coral has been adopted, the anemonefish will defend it. Anemonefish, however, are not obligately tied to hosts, and can survive alone in captivity. [37] [38]

Clownfish sold from captivity make up a very small account (10%) of the total trade of these fishes. Designer Clownfish, scientifically named A. ocellaris are much costlier and obtaining them has disrupted their coral reefs. Their attractive allure, color, and patterning have made them out to be an attractive target in wild trading. [22]

Finding Nemo birthday cakes featuring clownfish are popular. Clownfish cake.jpg
Finding Nemo birthday cakes featuring clownfish are popular.

In Disney Pixar's 2003 film Finding Nemo and its 2016 sequel Finding Dory main characters Nemo, his father Marlin, and his mother Coral are clownfish from the species A. ocellaris . [39] The popularity of anemonefish for aquaria increased following the film's release; it is the first film associated with an increase in the numbers of those captured in the wild. [40]

Notes

  1. ↑ Exemplars of A. fuscocaudatus have never been sequenced. The authors hypothetically placed this species in the Indian clade because it is the most parsimonious solution regarding the biogeography of anemonefish species. [24]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Orange clownfish</span> Species of fish

The orange clownfish also known as percula clownfish and clown anemonefish, is widely known as a popular aquarium fish. Like other clownfishes, it often lives in association with sea anemones. A. percula is associated specifically with Heteractis magnifica and Stichodactyla gigantea, and as larvae use chemical cues released from the anemones to identify and locate the appropriate host species to use them for shelter and protection. This causes preferential selection when finding their anemone host species. Although popular, maintaining this species in captivity is rather complex. The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority regulates the number of collection permits issued to aquarium fish dealers who seek this, and other tropical fish within the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. The symbiosis between anemonefish and anemones depends on the presence of the fish drawing other fish to the anemone, where they are stung by its venomous tentacles. The anemone helps the fish by giving it protection from predators, which include brittle stars, wrasses, and other damselfish, and the fish helps the anemone by feeding it, increasing oxygenation, and removing waste material from the host. Various hypotheses exist about the fish's ability to live within the anemone without being harmed. One study carried out at Marineland of the Pacific by Dr. Demorest Davenport and Dr. Kenneth Noris in 1958 revealed that the mucus secreted by the anemone fish prevented the anemone from discharging its lethal stinging nematocysts. A second hypothesis is that A. percula has acquired immunity towards the sea anemone's toxins, and a combination of the two has been shown to be the case. The fish feed on algae, zooplankton, worms, and small crustaceans.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Clark's anemonefish</span> Species of fish

Clark's anemonefish, also known as the yellowtail clownfish, is a marine fish belonging to the family Pomacentridae, the clownfishes and damselfishes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cinnamon clownfish</span> Species of fish

Amphiprion melanopus, also known as the cinnamon clownfish, fire clownfish, red and black anemonefish, black-backed anemonefish or dusky anemonefish is a widely distributed anemonefish chiefly found in the western and southern parts of the Pacific Ocean.. The species scientific name 'melanopus' is Greek, meaning black feet in reference to the black pelvic fins. Like all anemonefishes it forms a symbiotic mutualism with sea anemones and is unaffected by the stinging tentacles of the host anemone. It is a sequential hermaphrodite with a strict sized based dominance hierarchy: the female is largest, the breeding male is second largest, and the male non-breeders get progressively smaller as the hierarchy descends. They exhibit protandry, meaning the breeding male will change to female if the sole breeding female dies, with the largest non-breeder becomes the breeding male.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ocellaris clownfish</span> Species of fish

The ocellaris clownfish, also known as the false percula clownfish or common clownfish, is a marine fish belonging to the family Pomacentridae, which includes clownfishes and damselfishes. Amphiprion ocellaris are found in different colors, depending on where they are located. For example, black Amphiprion ocellaris with white bands can be found near northern Australia, Southeast Asia, and Japan. Orange or red-brown Amphiprion ocellaris also exist with three similar white bands on the body and head. Amphiprion ocellaris can be distinguished from other Amphiprion species based on the number of pectoral rays and dorsal spines. Amphiprion ocellaris are known to grow about 11 cm long. Like many other fish species, females are, however, larger than males. The life cycle of Amphiprion ocellaris varies in whether they reside at the surface or bottom of the ocean. When they initially hatch, they reside near the surface. However, when Amphiprion ocellaris enter into the juvenile stage of life, they travel down to the bottom to find shelter in a host anemone. Once they find their anemone, they form a symbiotic relationship with them.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tomato clownfish</span> Species of fish

The tomato clownfish is a species of marine fish in the family Pomacentridae, the clownfishes and damselfishes. It is native to the waters of the Western Pacific, from the Japan to Indonesia. Other common names include blackback anemonefish, bridled anemonefish, fire clown, and red tomato clown.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Orange skunk clownfish</span> Species of fish

Amphiprion sandaracinos, also known as the orange skunk clownfish or orange anemonefish, is a species of anemonefish that is distinguished by its broad white stripe along the dorsal ridge. Like all anemonefishes it forms a symbiotic mutualism with sea anemones and is unaffected by the stinging tentacles of the host anemone. It is a sequential hermaphrodite with a strict sized based dominance hierarchy: the female is largest, the breeding male is second largest, and the male non-breeders get progressively smaller as the hierarchy descends. They exhibit protandry, meaning the breeding male will change to female if the sole breeding female dies, with the largest non-breeder becomes the breeding male.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sebae clownfish</span> Species of fish

Amphiprion sebae, also known as the sebae clownfish, is an anemonefish found in the northern Indian Ocean, from Java to the Arabian Peninsula. Like all anemonefish it is usually found living in association with sea anemones. While the common name of Heteractis crispa, the sebae anemone, suggests an association, it is normally found with the Stichodactyla haddoni or saddle anemone. A. sebae, like all anemonefish, lives in a symbiotic relationship with the host anemone where the fish is unaffected by the stinging tentacles of the anemone. In a group of clownfish, Only two clownfish, a male and a female, in a group reproduce through external fertilization. Clownfish are sequential hermaphrodites, changing from male to female, with a strict dominance hierarchy and only the largest fish being female.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Maroon clownfish</span> Species of fish

Premnas biaculeatus, commonly known as spine-cheeked anemonefish or the maroon clownfish, is a species of anemonefish found in the Indo-Pacific from western Indonesia to Taiwan and the Great Barrier Reef. They can grow up to be about 17 cm (6.7 in). Like all anemonefishes it forms a symbiotic mutualism with sea anemones and is unaffected by the stinging tentacles of the host anemone. It is a sequential hermaphrodite with a strict size-based dominance hierarchy; the female is largest, the breeding male is second largest, and the male nonbreeders get progressively smaller as the hierarchy descends. They exhibit protandry, meaning the breeding male changes to female if the sole breeding female dies, with the largest nonbreeder becoming the breeding male. The fish's natural diet includes algae and zooplankton.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Australian clownfish</span> Species of fish

Amphiprion rubrocinctus, also known as the Australian clownfish or red anemonefish, is a species of anemonefish that is endemic to north west Australia. Like all anemonefishes it forms a symbiotic mutualism with sea anemones and is unaffected by the stinging tentacles of the host anemone. It is a sequential hermaphrodite with a strict sized based dominance hierarchy: the female is largest, the breeding male is second largest, and the male non-breeders get progressively smaller as the hierarchy descends. They exhibit protandry, meaning the breeding male will change to female if the sole breeding female dies, with the largest non-breeder becomes the breeding male. The fish's natural diet includes zooplankton.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Orange-fin anemonefish</span> Species of fish

The orange-fin anemonefish is a marine fish belonging to the family Pomacentridae, the clownfishes and damselfishes, found in the Western Pacific north of the Great Barrier Reef from the surface to 20 m, to include the Pacific Ocean between Queensland, Australia, and New Guinea to the Marshall and Tuamotus Islands. It can grow to 17 cm in length.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Saddleback clownfish</span> Species of fish

Amphiprion polymnus, also known as the saddleback clownfish or yellowfin anemonefish, is a black and white species of anemonefish with a distinctive saddle. Like all anemonefishes it forms a symbiotic mutualism with sea anemones and is unaffected by the stinging tentacles of the host anemone. It is a sequential hermaphrodite with a strict sized-based dominance hierarchy: the female is largest, the breeding male is second largest, and the male non-breeders get progressively smaller as the hierarchy descends. They exhibit protandry, meaning the breeding male will change to female if the sole breeding female dies, with the largest non-breeder becomes the breeding male.

<i>Amphiprion akindynos</i> Species of fish

Amphiprion akindynos, the Barrier Reef anemonefish, is a species of anemonefish that is principally found in the Great Barrier Reef of Australia, but also in nearby locations in the Western Pacific. The species name 'akindynos' is Greek, meaning 'safe' or 'without danger' in reference to the safety afforded amongst the tentacles of its host anemone. Like all anemonefishes it forms a symbiotic mutualism with sea anemones and is unaffected by the stinging tentacles of the host anemone. It is a sequential hermaphrodite with a strict size-based dominance hierarchy: the female is largest, the breeding male is second largest, and the male non-breeders get progressively smaller as the hierarchy descends. They exhibit protandry, meaning the breeding male will change to female if the sole breeding female dies, with the largest non-breeder becomes the breeding male. The fish's natural diet includes zooplankton.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Red Sea clownfish</span> Species of fish

The Red Sea Clownfish, commonly known as the Red Sea or two-bandedanemonefish is a marine fish belonging to the family Pomacentridae, the clownfishes and damselfishes. Like other species of the genus, the fish feeds on algae and zooplankton in the wild.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pink skunk clownfish</span> Species of fish

The pink skunk clownfish, also known as the pink anemonefish, is a species of anemonefish that is widespread from northern Australia through the Malay Archipelago and Melanesia. Like all anemonefishes, it forms a symbiotic mutualism with sea anemones and is unaffected by the stinging tentacles of the host. It is a sequential hermaphrodite with a strict size-based dominance hierarchy; the female is largest, the breeding male is second largest, and the male nonbreeders get progressively smaller as the hierarchy descends. They exhibit protandry, meaning the breeding male changes to female if the sole breeding female dies, with the largest nonbreeder becoming the breeding male.

The three-band anemonefish is a species of anemonefish endemic to the Marshall Islands in the western part of the Pacific Ocean. Like all anemonefishes, it forms a symbiotic mutualism with sea anemones and is unaffected by the stinging tentacles of its host. It is a sequential hermaphrodite with a strict size-based dominance hierarchy; the female is largest, the breeding male is second largest, and the male nonbreeders get progressively smaller as the hierarchy descends. They exhibit protandry, meaning the breeding male changes to female if the sole breeding female dies, with the largest nonbreeder becoming the breeding male. The fish's natural diet includes zooplankton.

<i>Stichodactyla gigantea</i> Species of sea anemone

Stichodactyla gigantea, commonly known as the giant carpet anemone, is a species of sea anemone that lives in the Indo-Pacific area. It can be kept in an aquarium but is a very challenging species to keep alive and healthy for more than 3–5 years.

<i>Stichodactyla mertensii</i> Species of sea anemone

Stichodactyla mertensii, commonly known as Mertens' carpet sea anemone, is a species of sea anemones in the family Stichodactylidae. It is regarded as the largest sea anemone with a diameter of over 1 m (3.3 ft), the next largest being Heteractis magnifica, which has longer tentacles. This species has an oral disc that can be described as more ovoid than circular that contours to the surrounding substrate and is attached to the substrate by adhesive verrucae, which are wart-like projections. Its blunt or pointed tentacles are uniformly shaped, and are only about 1–2 centimetres (0.39–0.79 in) long. It contains obligate symbiotic zooxanthellae, and is a host to around half the species of anemonefish and one damselfish, Dascyllus trimaculatus.

<i>Amphiprion latezonatus</i> Species of fish

Amphiprion latezonatus, also known as the wide-band anemonefish, is a species of anemonefish found in subtropical waters off the east coast of Australia. Like all anemonefishes, it forms a symbiotic mutualism with sea anemones and is unaffected by the stinging tentacles of its host. It is a sequential hermaphrodite with a strict size-based dominance hierarchy; the female is largest, the breeding male is second largest, and the male nonbreeders get progressively smaller as the hierarchy descends. They exhibit protandry, meaning the breeding male changes to female if the sole breeding female dies, with the largest nonbreeder becoming the breeding male.

<i>Amphiprion latifasciatus</i> Species of fish

Amphiprion latifasciatus is a marine fish belonging to the family Pomacentridae, the clownfishes and damselfishes.

Amphiprion thiellei is thought to be a naturally occurring hybrid anemonefish found in the vicinity of Cebu, Philippines. Like all anemonefishes it forms a symbiotic mutualism with sea anemones and is unaffected by the stinging tentacles of the host anemone. It is a sequential hermaphrodite with a strict dominance hierarchy.

References

  1. ↑ Society, National Geographic (10 May 2011). "Clown Anemonefish, Clown Anemonefish Pictures, Clown Anemonefish Facts – National Geographic". Archived from the original on 13 January 2010.
  2. 1 2 Fautin, Daphne G.; Allen, Gerald R. (1997). Field Guide to Anemone Fishes and Their Host Sea Anemones. Western Australian Museum. ISBN   9780730983651. Archived from the original on 14 April 2015.
  3. 1 2 Porat, D.; Chadwick-Furman, N.E. (March 2005). "Effects of anemonefish on giant sea anemones: Ammonium uptake, zooxanthella content and tissue regeneration". Marine and Freshwater Behaviour and Physiology. 38 (1): 43–51. Bibcode:2005MFBP...38...43P. doi:10.1080/10236240500057929. S2CID   53051081.
  4. ↑ "Clown Anemonefish". Nat Geo Wild: Animals. National Geographic Society. 10 May 2011. Archived from the original on 13 January 2010. Retrieved 19 December 2011.
  5. ↑ "Clownfish" at the Encyclopedia of Life
  6. ↑ Holbrook, S. J. and Schmitt, R. J. Growth, reproduction and survival of a tropical sea anemone (Actiniaria): benefits of hosting anemonefish , 2005, cited in blogspot.com
  7. ↑ Szczebak, J. T.; Henry, R. P.; Al-Horani, F. A.; Chadwick, N. E. (15 March 2013). "Anemonefish oxygenate their anemone hosts at night". Journal of Experimental Biology. 216 (6): 970–976. doi: 10.1242/jeb.075648 . PMID   23447664.
  8. ↑ "Clown Anemonefishes, Amphiprion ocellaris". Marinebio. The MarineBio Conservation Society. Archived from the original on 27 October 2011. Retrieved 19 December 2011.
  9. ↑ Szczebak, J. T.; Henry, R. P.; Al-Horani, F. A.; Chadwick, N. E. (15 March 2013). "Anemonefish oxygenate their anemone hosts at night". Journal of Experimental Biology. 216 (6): 970–976. doi: 10.1242/jeb.075648 . PMID   23447664. S2CID   205352.
  10. ↑ Norin, Tommy; Mills, Suzanne; Crespel, Amelie; Cortese, Daphne; Beldade, Ricardo; Killen, Shaun (2018). "Anemone bleaching increases the metabolic demands of symbiont anemonefish". Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 285 (1876). doi: 10.1098/rspb.2018.0282 . PMC   5904320 . PMID   29643214.
  11. ↑ Cortese, Daphne; Norin, Tommy; Beldade, Ricardo; Crespel, Amelie; Killen, Shaun; Mills, Suzanne (2021). "Physiological and behavioural effects of anemone bleaching on symbiont anemonefish in the wild". Functional Ecology. 35 (3): 663–674. Bibcode:2021FuEco..35..663C. doi: 10.1111/1365-2435.13729 .
  12. ↑ Mebs, D. (September 1994). "Anemonefish symbiosis: Vulnerability and resistance of fish to the toxin of the sea anemone". Toxicon. 32 (9): 1059–1068. doi:10.1016/0041-0101(94)90390-5. PMID   7801342.
  13. ↑ Lieske, E.; and R. Myers (1999). Coral Reef Fishes. ISBN   0-691-00481-1
  14. ↑ Patzner, R.A. (5 July 2017). "Gobius incognitus". Archived from the original on 7 August 2020. Retrieved 10 January 2018.
  15. ↑ Fretwell, K.; and B. Starzomski (2014). Painted greenling. Biodiversity of the Central Coast. Retrieved 29 January 2015.
  16. ↑ Buston, P. (2004). "Does the Presence of Non-Breeders Enhance the Fitness of Breeders? An Experimental Analysis in the Clown Anemonefish Amphiprion percula". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 57: 23–31. doi:10.1007/s00265-004-0833-2. S2CID   24516887.
  17. ↑ Jeff Hesketh. "Clownfish breeding for beginners". Mad Hatter's Reef. Retrieved 19 October 2023.
  18. ↑ Stephanie Boyer. "Clown Anemofish". Florida Museum of Natural History. Archived from the original on 28 October 2005. Retrieved 15 September 2013.
  19. 1 2 Ross, Robert M. (1978). "Reproductive Behavior of the Anemonefish Amphiprion melanopus on Guam". Copeia. 1978 (1): 103–107. doi:10.2307/1443829. JSTOR   1443829.
  20. ↑ Buston, Peter (November 2004). "Does the presence of non-breeders enhance the fitness of breeders? An experimental analysis in the clown anemonefish Amphiprion percula". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 57 (1): 23–31. doi:10.1007/s00265-004-0833-2. S2CID   24516887.
  21. ↑ Ghosh, Swagat; Kumar, T. T. Ajith; Balasubramanian, T. (October 2012). "Determining the level of parental care relating fanning behavior of five species of clownfishes in captivity" (PDF). Indian Journal of Geo-Marine Sciences. 41 (5): 430–441.
  22. 1 2 Anikuttan Kuttan Kuravamparambu; Rameshkumar Palsamy; Nazar Abdul Khudus; et al. (2022). "Designer clown fishes: Unraveling the ambiguities". Frontiers in Marine Science. 9. doi: 10.3389/fmars.2022.907362 . ISSN   2296-7745.
  23. ↑ Goemans, B. "Anemonefishes" . Retrieved 20 September 2015.
  24. 1 2 3 Litsios, Glenn; Salamin, Nicolas (December 2014). "Hybridisation and diversification in the adaptive radiation of clownfishes". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 14 (1): 245. Bibcode:2014BMCEE..14..245L. doi: 10.1186/s12862-014-0245-5 . PMC   4264551 . PMID   25433367.
  25. 1 2 DeAngelis, R. "What we really know about the diversity of Clownfish". Archived from the original on 25 September 2015. Retrieved 20 September 2015.
  26. 1 2 Litsios, Glenn; Sims, Carrie A; Wüest, Rafael O; Pearman, Peter B; Zimmermann, Niklaus E; Salamin, Nicolas (2012). "Mutualism with sea anemones triggered the adaptive radiation of clownfishes". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 12 (1): 212. Bibcode:2012BMCEE..12..212L. doi: 10.1186/1471-2148-12-212 . PMC   3532366 . PMID   23122007.
  27. ↑ van der Meer, M. H.; Jones, G. P.; Hobbs, J.-P. A.; van Herwerden, L. (July 2012). "Historic hybridization and introgression between two iconic Australian anemonefish and contemporary patterns of population connectivity: Historic Hybridization between Anemonefish". Ecology and Evolution. 2 (7): 1592–1604. doi:10.1002/ece3.251. PMC   3434915 . PMID   22957165.
  28. ↑ Froese, Rainer and Pauly, Daniel, eds. (2011). Species of Amphiprion in FishBase . December 2011 version.
  29. ↑ Froese, Rainer and Pauly, Daniel, eds. (2011). Species of Premnas in FishBase . December 2011 version.
  30. ↑ Dhaneesh, K. V.; Vinoth, R.; Ghosh, Swagat; Gopi, M.; Kumar, T. T. Ajith; Balasubramanian, T. (2013). "Hatchery Production of Marine Ornamental Fishes: An Alternate Livelihood Option for the Island Community at Lakshadweep". Climate Change and Island and Coastal Vulnerability. pp. 253–265. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-6016-5_17. ISBN   978-94-007-6015-8.
  31. ↑ Taylor, M.; Razak, T. & Green, E. (2003). From ocean to aquarium: A global trade in marine ornamental species (PDF). UNEP world conservation and monitoring centre (WCMC). pp. 1–64. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 July 2004. Retrieved 18 April 2013.
  32. ↑ Shuman, Craig S.; Hodgson, Gregor; Ambrose, Richard F. (December 2005). "Population impacts of collecting sea anemones and anemonefish for the marine aquarium trade in the Philippines". Coral Reefs. 24 (4): 564–573. Bibcode:2005CorRe..24..564S. doi:10.1007/s00338-005-0027-z. S2CID   25027153.
  33. ↑ Watson, Craig A.; Hill, Jeffrey E. (May 2006). "Design criteria for recirculating, marine ornamental production systems". Aquacultural Engineering. 34 (3): 157–162. Bibcode:2006AqEng..34..157W. doi:10.1016/j.aquaeng.2005.07.002.
  34. ↑ Hall, Heather; Douglas Warmolts (2003). "23". In James C. Cato; Christopher L. Brown (eds.). Marine Ornamental Species: Collection, Culture and Conservation. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 303–326. ISBN   978-0-8138-2987-6.
  35. ↑ Tullock, John (1998). Clownfish and Sea Anemones (illustrated ed.). Barron's Educational Series. pp. 11–22. ISBN   9780764105111 . Retrieved 11 May 2015.
  36. ↑ Fatherree, James W. "Aquarium Fish: On the Clownfishes' Range of Hosts". Advanced Aquarist. Archived from the original on 22 March 2014. Retrieved 31 December 2016.
  37. ↑ Daphne Gail Fautin (1991). "The anemonefish symbiosis: what is known and what is not" (PDF). Symbiosis . 10: 23–46. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 May 2012.
  38. ↑ Ronald L. Shimek (2004). Marine Invertebrates. Neptune City, NJ: T.F.H. Publications. p. 83. ISBN   978-1-890087-66-1.
  39. ↑ "Finding Nemo (2003)". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved 5 April 2016.
  40. ↑ Calado, Ricardo; Olivotto, Ike; Oliver, Miquel Planas; Holt, G. Joan (6 March 2017). Marine Ornamental Species Aquaculture. John Wiley & Sons. p. 179. ISBN   9780470673904 – via Google Books.

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Further reading

  1. ↑ Baras, E., Slembrouck, J., Priyadi, A., Satyani, D., Pouyaud, L., & Legendre, M. (2012). Biology and culture of the clown loach Chromobotia macracanthus (Cypriniformes, Cobitidae): 3-Ontogeny, ecological and aquacultural implications. Aquatic Living Resources, 25(2), 119-130.
  2. ↑ Anikuttan, K. K., Rameshkumar, P., Nazar, A. K., Jayakumar, R., Tamilmani, G., Sakthivel, M., ... & Gopalakrishnan, A. (2022). Designer Clown Fishes: Unraveling the ambiguities. Frontiers in Marine Science, 9, 907362.
  3. ↑ Slembrouck, J., Priyadi, A., Permana, A., Ginanjar, R., Baras, E., Satyani, D., ... & Legendre, M. (2012). Biology and culture of the clown loach Chromobotia macracanthus (Cypriniformes, Cobitidae): 2-Importance of water movement and temperature during egg incubation. Aquatic Living Resources, 25(2), 109-118.
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