| Common parsley frog | |
|---|---|
 | |
Scientific classification  | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Amphibia |
| Order: | Anura |
| Family: | Pelodytidae |
| Genus: | Pelodytes |
| Species: | P. punctatus |
| Binomial name | |
| Pelodytes punctatus Daudin, 1802 | |
 | |
The common parsley frog (Pelodytes punctatus) is a species of frog in the genus Pelodytes . It lives in the Iberian region of southwestern Europe. [1] Its earliest identification is believed to be from 1802.
The common parsley frog (Pelodytes punctatus) is a very small and slender frog with long hind legs, a flat head, and vertical pupils. Males tend to only reach 3.5 cm (1.4 in), whereas females are typically larger at 3.9 cm (1.5 in). [2] The upper part of the body is variable in colour, usually with irregular green patches on a light brown, grey, or light olive background. The frog's back is dotted with elongated warts, often in undulating longitudinal rows that may be orange along the flanks. Behind the protruding eyes and above the tympanum there is a short small gland. It does not have parotid glands. The underside of the frog is white and yellow-orange around the pelvis.
They are fossorial, meaning they can live underground with limbs suited for burying and digging. [3] In the mating season, males develop dark swellings on the insides of their digits and forelimbs, as well as on the chest. The males' forelimbs are usually stronger than the females. They are not completely cryptic like many other species of frog, but are still camouflaged in their environments. [4] They can jump 50–70 cm (20–28 in) in a single leap, and they are referred to as the "Mud-Jumper", or "Modderkruiper" in Germany, for this ability. [1]
The common parsley frog (Pelodytes punctatus) is a member of the Pelodytidae family and Pelodytes genus. There is only a single genus within the family, and there are more extinct species and genera than currently living in the phylogenetic tree. [4] Their close relatives include other parsley frogs as the Lusitanian parsley frog (Pelodytes atlanticus), the Caucasian parsley frog (Pelodytes caucasicus), the Hesperides' parsley frog (Pelodytes hespericus), [5] and the Iberian parsley frog (Pelodytes ibericus –) as well as European spadefoot toads and megophryidae.
These frogs can be found in France, Northeastern Spain and a small part of Northwestern Italy (southern Piedmont and Liguria, specifically). Their numbers are decreasing all over the distribution range due to habitat changes that eliminate their breeding sites. They are also threatened and more at-risk in southern Spain and northern Portugal. [6] [7] The current situation of the genus is under discussion and there is disagreement regarding the taxonomy due to the separation of the lineages, especially in the different contact zones within the Iberian Peninsula. [8] [9]
The habitat altitude of the frogs reach from sea level to middle mountainous regions as high as 1,630-2,000 meters (5,350-6,560 feet) above sea level. Though they can live comfortably in that range, they prefer to breed at lower elevations of around 60–460 meters (200-1,500 feet) above sea level. [7] [10]
The parsley frog’s habits differ from one ecological niche to another since they are heavily weather-dependent. Because of their diverse range and flexibility in egg-laying and mating habits, different local parsley frogs may not have the same date range as another frog of the same species that lives somewhere with a different weather pattern.
Pelodytes punctatus breed on a temporal schedule. [10] They can breed twice a year, once in the autumn and once in the spring, and having two separate mating seasons is of evolutionary benefit as this increases their numbers of offspring. [11] [12] The flexibility in breeding patterns allows them to better adapt to differences in their environment. [11] [12] However, the ponds in which they breed are not necessarily the ponds that they go on to live in as adults. [10] There are three models of breeding, the opportunity, contingent, and bet-hedging model. In the opportunity model, the frogs may reproduce in the spring and autumn months of a given year. [10] In the contingent model, frogs will select a season to reproduce and stick with it year after year, even if it was not the season they were born in. [13] In the bet-hedging model, they switch back and forth between autumn and spring breeding throughout their lives and several breeding seasons, depending on the environment and their own fitness at the time. [11] [12] [13]
In France, the breeding season spans from the end of February to early April; in Portugal, it is from November to March. In Andalusia, this parsley frog may spawn several times a year, and the bimodal mating can be seen in various other habitats as well. [12] [13] Parsley frogs generally tend to lay eggs following intense rainfall. If there is an unusual drought, they can postpone their breeding for up to two months, from March to May. [10] They often choose temporary ponds with aquatic plant life as their preferred breeding sites. There is a positive, though weak, correlation between the depth of a pond and the frogs’s preference to breed. [10] They also prefer to lay eggs on aquatic vegetation that is submerged underwater. [14] The area of ponds is much more important to the frogs, and they prefer breeding ponds that have large areas. Parsley frogs have also been reported to breed in small streams or artificial reservoirs. [10] They lay their eggs in a “zig-zag” pattern and have been observed to deposit over ten clutches. [14]
The frogs’ breeding habitats are generally unpredictable due to their preferences, and since the ponds are temporary, may vary from year to year. [15] Mediterranean species typically prefer autumn reproductions, which may be regulated by air temperature and biological instinct in the frog. [16] [17] Tadpoles hatched in autumn months tend to fare better than those in the spring. This is potentially due to having extended time to develop through winter, less competition, and decreased predation.
Parsley frogs engage in amplexus to reproduce, and female frogs can lay anywhere from 30 to 400 eggs. [18]
Metamorphosis can occur as early as January or February until March, depending on the distribution range. [2] In the metamorphosis process, parsley frogs exhibit phenotype plasticity, in part because their breeding habitats are so uncertain. [15] There are different sizes and other physiological changes seen in some frogs of the same species. These changes are due to plasticity, or morphing into different phenotypes to best adapt to their unique environment. [10] In ponds that are shallower or dry more quickly, different phenotypes or characteristics are observed in the young frogs. [15] Drier ponds yield a shorter larval period for the frogs. [15] Eggs laid in ponds with consistent depth, and then tadpoles living in that environment generally have a larger body size, depth, tail length and depth, and tail fin length and depth. [15] These differences do not impact the survival rate of the frogs, however. Similar trends persist once the tadpoles metamorphose into toadlets, with the drier ponds producing smaller frogs. [15] The different sizes could be responsible for other behaviors or aspects of the frogs’ lives (i.e, mating, fecundity). [15] Terrestrial life for the frogs does not appear to be greatly impacted, other than the size differences aforementioned. [15] Many other anuran species exhibit similar size and growth trends about drying environments. Still, the parsley frog’s actual morphological changes and the plasticity, or ability to change, are noteworthy as they are determined to be mostly plastic and not genetic or induced via mutations. [16]
P. punctatus tadpoles are notoriously poor competitors. This is witnessed when they co-habitat with other species in the same ponds. The tail fin of tadpoles may become obsolete in shallower waters, so different morphologies of tadpoles may thrive in different environments, even within the same species. [15]
Regardless of tadpole environment or size, parsley frogs' jumping ability is relatively strong. [15] Male frogs often tend to be sedentary and inhabit the same shelters in non-breeding times of the year, [14] and return to the same locations over several years. Females live near males and seek them out in breeding seasons and when ready to mate. [14]
The parsley frog hibernates for shorter times than other anurans, and some southern species skip hibernation altogether. [1] Frogs that do hibernate will generally enter hibernation after the fall breed and resume reproductive activities for spring breeds following. [1]
Male parsley frogs utilize paired inner vocal sacs to croak underwater. They are fairly quiet in this process. [19] The males create a relatively quiet croaking noise with the help of their paired inner vocal sacs, also underwater. [9] Female frogs may respond with a "kee, kee" call. [2]
The parsley frog has been known to have different calls based on the region it lives in, size, or temperature. [19] They have an elaborate calling system, but an average human more than 300 meters (980 feet) away will be unable to hear the quiet call. [19] Calls can last for about 1.5 to 3 seconds. [19] Larger sizes of the calling frog usually will lead to a longer call with a lower-pitched signal. [19] Increased temperatures will do the opposite, quickening their signals. [19] Most males do not submerge themselves in the water when calling, though some do. [14]
In addition to plasticity, parsley frogs also exhibit a great deal of true genetic diversity. [6] Several microsatellites have been mapped onto their alleles, and demonstrates that there are many different alleles present in their genetic field. [6] The mapped microsatellites, or small repeats of DNA, can indicate uniqueness and ability to splice mRNA and other genetic material differently. Different splices can yield different phenotypes, and thus behaviors and characteristics. Recently, eight microsatellites were identified that can be considered important in understanding bimodal reproduction in autumn and spring. [4] These markers could be used to understand how and why the frogs choose to breed and when. [4]
There used to be a larger concern for the survival of this species, but in recent years it has been determined that they are at low risk for extinction. [1] One large issue facing these frogs related to climate change is introducing invasive species, such as fish and crayfish. These new predators can increase predation, decrease tadpole survival, and thus diminish the frogs' numbers. [20] The introduction of the American red swamp crayfish, Procambarus clarkii, is an example of how invasive species can impact parsley frog behavior and life.
Pelodytes punctatus tadpoles have relatively high plasticity, [20] as mentioned above. However, they have been impacted by changing ecosystems and introducing new and invasive species into their habitats. Native tadpole predators can include larval Aeshnid dragonflies, or other insects or animals they share habitat with. [20] The invasive fish species, Gumbusia holbrooki (Eastern mosquitofish), first appeared in their habitats near the Iberian peninsula several decades ago. [20] Invasive predators may have negative impacts on morphological development, studying tadpole growth and increasing rates of tadpole mortality. [20] It only took 30 years for the frogs to exhibit physical changes after cohabitation with the crayfish. [20] Parsley frogs also experienced behavioral changes in the presence of invasive fishes. [20] Because of the recent introduction of invasive species, there is still co-evolution occurring, and some scientists determined that there needs to be a longer period of co-habituation to fully determine the effect of the invasive species on the parsley frog tadpoles. [20]
The frogs also occupy fewer ponds annually. From 1997 to 1999, the Mediterranean ponds that typically housed their larvae decreased by nearly half. [1] The biggest threat to their breeding pools is drying, [10] which can be precipitated by man-made drainage of wetlands or construction work in their environments. They also face danger from fires for similar reasons of habitat or breeding ground destruction. [10] The parsley frog has a relatively high ability to adapt and exhibit plasticity (see above breeding and early life behaviors). Because of this, they may be able to quickly shift into new ecosystems even in the face of climate change and shifting ecologies. [13]
These frogs can potentially thrive in captivity but were rarely kept as pets in the nineteenth century. [1] There is little evidence to suggest that they are kept as pets today.
The parsley frog is not critically endangered but protected under law in Europe. [10] There are several European laws that protect this frog: in France, The Berne Convention, Appendix III (1979); in Italy, Habitats Directive 1992/43/CEE; in Piedmont, Italy, Piedmont Regional Law 29/1984, Article I; and in Linguria, Italy, Liguria Regional Law 4/1992, Article 11. [10] Because of the temporality of their breeding grounds, conservation efforts may be widespread and broad.
The ornate chorus frog is a species of chorus frog endemic to the Southeastern United States. Their distribution ranges from North Carolina, east to the very eastern part of Louisiana, and south to northern parts of Florida.
The spring peeper is a small chorus frog widespread throughout the eastern United States and Canada. They prefer permanent ponds due to their advantage in avoiding predation; however, they are very adaptable with respect to the habitat they can live in. In northern regions, the frog is able to endure below freezing temperatures due to the capacity of their livers to exude and flush the bloodstream with a glucose cryoprotectant which acts both as an anti-freeze in their blood, and allows organs like the heart to enter into a state of protected dormancy. They are so called because of their chirping call that marks the beginning of spring. Crucifer is derived from the Latin root meaning "cross-bearing." This could be a reference to the cross-like pattern on the spring peeper's dorsal side.
The common frog or grass frog, also known as the European common frog, European common brown frog, European grass frog, European Holarctic true frog, European pond frog or European brown frog, is a semi-aquatic amphibian of the family Ranidae, found throughout much of Europe as far north as Scandinavia and as far east as the Urals, except for most of the Iberian Peninsula, southern Italy, and the southern Balkans. The farthest west it can be found is Ireland. It is also found in Asia, and eastward to Japan. The nominative, and most common, subspecies Rana temporaria temporaria is a largely terrestrial frog native to Europe. It is distributed throughout northern Europe and can be found in Ireland, the Isle of Lewis and as far east as Japan.
Lithobates sylvaticus or Rana sylvatica, commonly known as the wood frog, is a frog species that has a broad distribution over North America, extending from the boreal forest of the north to the southern Appalachians, with several notable disjunct populations including lowland eastern North Carolina. The wood frog has garnered attention from biologists because of its freeze tolerance, relatively great degree of terrestrialism, interesting habitat associations, and relatively long-range movements.
Darwin’s frog, also called the Southern Darwin's frog, is a species of Chilean/Argentinian frog of the family Rhinodermatidae. It was discovered by Charles Darwin during his voyage on HMS Beagle. on a trip to Chile. In 1841, French zoologist André Marie Constant Duméril and his assistant Gabriel Bibron described and named Darwin's frog. The diet of R. darwinii consists mostly of herbivore invertebrates. R. darwinii is currently classified as an endangered species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.
Agalychnis callidryas, commonly known as the red-eyed tree frog, is a species of frog in the subfamily Phyllomedusinae. It is native to forests from Central America to north-western South America. This species is known for its bright coloration, namely its vibrant green body with blue and yellow stripes on the side. It has a white underside, brightly red and orange colored feet, and is named after its distinctive bright red eyes.
The parsley frogs or Pelodytidae are a family of order Anura. The family consists of a single genus, Pelodytes, which contains five species. These frogs can be found in south-western Europe and the Caucasus. The common name of "parsley frogs" comes from the common parsley frog which, because of its colouring, appears to be garnished with parsley.
The pickerel frog is a small North American frog, characterized by the appearance of seemingly "hand-drawn" squares on its dorsal surface. Pickerel frogs are the only poisonous frog native to the United States.
The American green tree frog is a common arboreal species of New World tree frog belonging to the family Hylidae. This nocturnal insectivore is moderately sized and has a bright green to reddish-brown coloration. Commonly found in the central and southeastern United States, the frog lives in open canopy forests and permanent waters with abundant vegetation. When defending territory, the frog either emits aggressive call signals or grapples with intruders. To avoid predation, the frog hides in its aquatic habitat.
The yellow-bellied toad belongs to the order Anura, the archaeobatrachial family Bombinatoridae, and the genus of fire-bellied toads. The toad is distributed mainly across western Europe as well as a handful of countries in eastern Europe. While the population of the toad is steadily decreasing over time, its numbers are not critical enough to be considered threatened or extinct. Conservation efforts in Germany are taking place to remedy the declining population before it is too late.
The moor frog is a slim, reddish-brown, semiaquatic amphibian native to Europe and Asia. Moor frogs are known for their ability to freeze solid and survive thawing. The frog makes use of various cryoprotectants i.e. antifreeze that decrease its internal freezing temperature. The species is distributed over a large range, covering a significant portion of Eurasia. Male moor frogs are known to turn blue temporarily during the height of mating season. This coloration is assumed to signal a mate's fitness. Moor frogs typically mate through multimale amplexus a form of polyandry.
The Italian agile frog, also known as Lataste's frog, is a species of frog in the family Ranidae. The species is native to southern Europe, primarily found in the Po River Basin of Italy. It is one of the most endangered amphibian species in Europe, with its populations declining sharply in recent years, and has been the focus of multiple conservation plans.
The western chorus frog, also known as striped chorus frog, or midland chorus frog is a species of frog found in Canada and the United States.
The plains spadefoot toad is a species of American spadefoot toad which ranges from southwestern Canada, throughout the Great Plains of the western United States, and into northern Mexico. Like other species of spadefoot toads, they get their name from a spade-like projection on their hind legs which allows them to dig into sandy soils. Their name, in part, comes from their keratinized metatarsals, which are wide instead of "sickle shaped". The species name translates as buzzing leaf shaped. This refers to the species' distinguishing features; its buzzing mating call, and its leaf-shaped digging metatarsals. It was first described by Cope in 1863.
Scaphiopus holbrookii, commonly known as the eastern spadefoot, is a species of American spadefoot toad endemic to North America. It is not considered a true toad.
Dendropsophus ebraccatus, also known as the hourglass treefrog, referring to the golden-brown hourglass shape seen surrounded by skin yellow on its back. Their underbellies are yellow. Their arms and lower legs usually display bold patterns while their upper legs or thighs are light yellow giving them the appearance of wearing no pants. The species name "ebraccata" translates to "without trousers" in Latin.
The quacking frog also known as the red-thighed froglet due to its legs tending to be bright red. It is a species of frog from the Myobatrachidae family and is in a clad with five other species. The frog is well known for the sound it produces which resembles a quack. It has up to 11 notes and can change the notes in their call. It has larger testes compared to other frogs within the genus and has started to be used in experiments. This frog is found in southwest Australia. It is found in ponds and pools and other moisture filled areas. These frogs engage in polyandry and can result in multiple paternity of its offspring. Additionally, the tadpoles of this species can change the rate they metamorphosize depending on the conditions. The males tend to have larger arm girth and can adopt different mating strategies depending on size. The mating strategy is dependent on male density. The frogs also vary in terms of color and texture of its skin. The tadpoles are generally golden with transparent tails.
The Iberian parsley frog is a species of frogs in the family Pelodytidae, known as "parsley frogs" because of their green speckles. This species is only found in Portugal and Spain; in Spanish it is known as sapillo moteado ibérico.
Lithobates clamitans or Rana clamitans, commonly known as the green frog, is a species of frog native to eastern North America. The two subspecies are the bronze frog and the northern green frog.
The Sierra Nevada yellow-legged frog or Sierra Nevada Mountain yellow-legged frog is a true frog endemic to the Sierra Nevada of California and Nevada in the United States. It was formerly considered Rana muscosa until a 2007 study elevated the more central and northern populations to full species status, restricting R. muscosa to the southern Sierra Nevada and southern California.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link){{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help){{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help){{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)