Endurance running hypothesis

Last updated

The endurance running hypothesis is a series of conjectures which presume humans evolved anatomical and physiological adaptations to run long distances [1] [2] [3] and, more strongly, that "running is the only known behavior that would account for the different body plans in Homo as opposed to apes or australopithecines". [4]

Contents

The hypothesis posits a significant role of endurance running in facilitating early hominins' ability to obtain meat. Proponents of this hypothesis propose that endurance running served as a means for hominins to effectively engage in persistence hunting and carcass poaching, thus enhancing their competitive edge in acquiring prey. Consequently, these evolutionary pressures have led to the prominence of endurance running as a primary factor shaping many biomechanical characteristics of modern humans.

Evolutionary evidence

No primates other than humans are capable of endurance running, and in fact, Australopithecus did not have structural adaptations for running. [5] [6] Instead, forensic anthropology suggests that anatomical features that directly contributed to endurance running capabilities were heavily selected for within the genus Homo dating back to 1.9Ma. Consequently, selecting anatomical features that made endurance running possible radically transformed the hominid body. [7] The general form of human locomotion is markedly distinct from all other animals observed in nature. ‘’From the Journal of Anatomy’’, author RM Alexander describes our unique form of bipedal motion:

"… no animal walks or runs as we do. We keep the trunk erect; in walking, our knees are almost straight at mid-stance; the forces our feet exert on the ground are very markedly two-peaked when we walk fast; and in walking and usually in running, we strike the ground initially with the heel alone. No animal walks or runs like that." [8]

From the perspective of natural selection, scientists acknowledge that specialization in endurance running would not have helped early humans avoid faster predators over short distances. [9] Instead, it could have allowed them to traverse shifting habitat zones more effectively in the African savannas during the Pliocene. Endurance running facilitated the timely scavenging of large animal carcasses and enabled the tracking and chasing prey over long distances. This tactic of exhausting prey was especially advantageous for capturing large quadrupedal mammals struggling to thermoregulate in hot weather and over extended distances. Conversely, humans possess efficient means to dissipate heat, primarily through sweating. Specifically, evaporative heat dissipation from the scalp and face prevents hyperthermia and heat-induced encephalitis by extreme cardiovascular loads. [10] Furthermore, as humans continued to develop, our posture became more upright and subsequently increased vertically with the elongation of limbs and torso, effectively increasing surface area for corporeal heat dissipation. [11]

In work exploring the evolution of the human head, paleontologist Daniel Lieberman suggests that certain adaptations to the Homo skull and neck are correlational evidence of traits selective to endurance running optimization. Specifically, he posits that adaptations such as a flattening face and the development of the nuchal ligament promote improved head balance for cranial stabilization during extended periods of running. [12]

Compared to Australopithecus fossil skeletons, selection for walking by itself would not develop some of these proposed "endurance running" derived traits —

Academic discourse

The derived longer hindlimb was already present in Australopithecus along with evidence for foot bones with a stiff arch. Walking and running in Australopithecus may have been the same as early Homo. Small changes in joint morphology may indicate neutral evolutionary processes rather than selection. [13]

The methodology by which the proposed derived traits were chosen and evaluated does not seem to have been stated, and there were immediate highly technical arguments "dismissing their validity and terming them either trivial or incorrect." [14]

Most of those proposed traits have not been tested for their effect on walking and running efficiency. [13] The new trunk shape counter-rotations, which help control rotations induced by hip-joint motion, seem active during walking. [15] [16] Elastic energy storage does occur in the plantar soft tissue of the foot during walking. [15] Relative lower-limb length has a slightly larger effect on the economy of walking than running. [16] The heel-down foot posture makes walking economical but does not benefit running. [17]

Model-based analysis showing that scavengers would reach a carcass within 30 minutes of detection suggests that "endurance running" would not have given earlier access to carcasses and so not result in selection for "endurance running". Earlier access to carcasses may have been selected for running short distances of 5 km or less, with adaptations that generally improved running performance. [18]

The discovery of more fossil evidence resulted in additional detailed descriptions of hindlimb bones with measurable data reported in the literature. From a study of those reports, hindlimb proposed traits were already present in Australopithecus or early Homo. Those hindlimb characteristics most likely evolved to improve walking efficiency with improved running as a by-product. [19]

Gluteus maximus activity was substantially higher in maximal effort jumping and punching than sprinting, and substantially higher in sprinting than in running at speeds that can be sustained. The activity levels are not consistent with the suggestion that the muscle size is a result of selection for sustained endurance running. [20] Additionally, gluteus maximus activity was much greater in sprinting than in running, similar in climbing and running, and greater in running than walking. Increased muscle activity seems related to the speed and intensity of the movement rather than the gait itself. The data suggests that the large size of the gluteus maximus reflects multiple roles during rapid and powerful movements rather than a specific adaptation to submaximal endurance running. [21]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bipedalism</span> Terrestrial locomotion using two limbs

Bipedalism is a form of terrestrial locomotion where a tetrapod moves by means of its two rear limbs or legs. An animal or machine that usually moves in a bipedal manner is known as a biped, meaning 'two feet'. Types of bipedal movement include walking or running and hopping.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Homininae</span> Subfamily of mammals

Homininae, also called "African hominids" or "African apes", is a subfamily of Hominidae. It includes two tribes, with their extant as well as extinct species: 1) the tribe Hominini ―and 2) the tribe Gorillini (gorillas). Alternatively, the genus Pan is sometimes considered to belong to its own third tribe, Panini. Homininae comprises all hominids that arose after orangutans split from the line of great apes. The Homininae cladogram has three main branches, which lead to gorillas, and to humans and chimpanzees via the tribe Hominini and subtribes Hominina and Panina. There are two living species of Panina and two living species of gorillas, but only one extant human species. Traces of extinct Homo species, including Homo floresiensis have been found with dates as recent as 40,000 years ago. Organisms in this subfamily are described as hominine or hominines.

<i>Homo habilis</i> Archaic human species from 2.1 to 1.5 mya

Homo habilis is an extinct species of archaic human from the Early Pleistocene of East and South Africa about 2.31 million years ago to 1.65 million years ago (mya). Upon species description in 1964, H. habilis was highly contested, with many researchers recommending it be synonymised with Australopithecus africanus, the only other early hominin known at the time, but H. habilis received more recognition as time went on and more relevant discoveries were made. By the 1980s, H. habilis was proposed to have been a human ancestor, directly evolving into Homo erectus which directly led to modern humans. This viewpoint is now debated. Several specimens with insecure species identification were assigned to H. habilis, leading to arguments for splitting, namely into "H. rudolfensis" and "H. gautengensis" of which only the former has received wide support.

<i>Paranthropus</i> Contested extinct genus of hominins

Paranthropus is a genus of extinct hominin which contains two widely accepted species: P. robustus and P. boisei. However, the validity of Paranthropus is contested, and it is sometimes considered to be synonymous with Australopithecus. They are also referred to as the robust australopithecines. They lived between approximately 2.9 and 1.2 million years ago (mya) from the end of the Pliocene to the Middle Pleistocene.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Australopithecus</span> Genus of hominin ancestral to modern humans

Australopithecus is a genus of early hominins that existed in Africa during the Pliocene and Early Pleistocene. The genera Homo, Paranthropus, and Kenyanthropus evolved from some Australopithecus species. Australopithecus is a member of the subtribe Australopithecina, which sometimes also includes Ardipithecus, though the term "australopithecine" is sometimes used to refer only to members of Australopithecus. Species include A. garhi, A. africanus, A. sediba, A. afarensis, A. anamensis, A. bahrelghazali and A. deyiremeda. Debate exists as to whether some Australopithecus species should be reclassified into new genera, or if Paranthropus and Kenyanthropus are synonymous with Australopithecus, in part because of the taxonomic inconsistency.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coracoid process</span> Small hook-like structure on the lateral edge of the superior anterior portion of the scapula

The coracoid process is a small hook-like structure on the lateral edge of the superior anterior portion of the scapula. Pointing laterally forward, it, together with the acromion, serves to stabilize the shoulder joint. It is palpable in the deltopectoral groove between the deltoid and pectoralis major muscles.

<i>Australopithecus afarensis</i> Extinct hominid from the Pliocene of East Africa

Australopithecus afarensis is an extinct species of australopithecine which lived from about 3.9–2.9 million years ago (mya) in the Pliocene of East Africa. The first fossils were discovered in the 1930s, but major fossil finds would not take place until the 1970s. From 1972 to 1977, the International Afar Research Expedition—led by anthropologists Maurice Taieb, Donald Johanson and Yves Coppens—unearthed several hundreds of hominin specimens in Hadar, Ethiopia, the most significant being the exceedingly well-preserved skeleton AL 288-1 ("Lucy") and the site AL 333. Beginning in 1974, Mary Leakey led an expedition into Laetoli, Tanzania, and notably recovered fossil trackways. In 1978, the species was first described, but this was followed by arguments for splitting the wealth of specimens into different species given the wide range of variation which had been attributed to sexual dimorphism. A. afarensis probably descended from A. anamensis and is hypothesised to have given rise to Homo, though the latter is debated.

<i>Australopithecus africanus</i> Extinct hominid from South Africa

Australopithecus africanus is an extinct species of australopithecine which lived between about 3.3 and 2.1 million years ago in the Late Pliocene to Early Pleistocene of South Africa. The species has been recovered from Taung, Sterkfontein, Makapansgat, and Gladysvale. The first specimen, the Taung child, was described by anatomist Raymond Dart in 1924, and was the first early hominin found. However, its closer relations to humans than to other apes would not become widely accepted until the middle of the century because most had believed humans evolved outside of Africa. It is unclear how A. africanus relates to other hominins, being variously placed as ancestral to Homo and Paranthropus, to just Paranthropus, or to just P. robustus. The specimen "Little Foot" is the most completely preserved early hominin, with 90% of the skeleton intact, and the oldest South African australopith. However, it is controversially suggested that it and similar specimens be split off into "A. prometheus".

<i>Australopithecus anamensis</i> Extinct hominin from Pliocene east Africa

Australopithecus anamensis is a hominin species that lived approximately between 4.2 and 3.8 million years ago and is the oldest known Australopithecus species, living during the Plio-Pleistocene era.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Knuckle-walking</span> Form of quadrupedal walking using the knuckles

Knuckle-walking is a form of quadrupedal walking in which the forelimbs hold the fingers in a partially flexed posture that allows body weight to press down on the ground through the knuckles. Gorillas and chimpanzees use this style of locomotion, as do anteaters and platypuses.

<i>Paranthropus robustus</i> Extinct species of hominin of South Africa

Paranthropus robustus is a species of robust australopithecine from the Early and possibly Middle Pleistocene of the Cradle of Humankind, South Africa, about 2.27 to 0.87 million years ago. It has been identified in Kromdraai, Swartkrans, Sterkfontein, Gondolin, Cooper's, and Drimolen Caves. Discovered in 1938, it was among the first early hominins described, and became the type species for the genus Paranthropus. However, it has been argued by some that Paranthropus is an invalid grouping and synonymous with Australopithecus, so the species is also often classified as Australopithecus robustus.

<i>Paranthropus boisei</i> Extinct species of hominin of East Africa

Paranthropus boisei is a species of australopithecine from the Early Pleistocene of East Africa about 2.5 to 1.15 million years ago. The holotype specimen, OH 5, was discovered by palaeoanthropologist Mary Leakey in 1959 at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania and described by her husband Louis a month later. It was originally placed into its own genus as "Zinjanthropus boisei", but is now relegated to Paranthropus along with other robust australopithecines. However, it is also argued that Paranthropus is an invalid grouping and synonymous with Australopithecus, so the species is also often classified as Australopithecus boisei.

Orthograde is a term derived from Greek ὀρθός, orthos + Latin gradi that describes a manner of walking which is upright, with the independent motion of limbs. Both New and Old World monkeys are primarily arboreal, and they have a tendency to walk with their limbs swinging in parallel to one another. This differs from the manner of walking demonstrated by the apes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arches of the foot</span> Load-bearing curves in the tarsal and metatarsal bones of the feet

The arches of the foot, formed by the tarsal and metatarsal bones, strengthened by ligaments and tendons, allow the foot to support the weight of the body in the erect posture with the least weight.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Persistence hunting</span> Hunting until the prey animal can no longer flee

Persistence hunting, also known as endurance hunting or long-distance hunting is a variant of pursuit predation in which a predator will bring down a prey item via indirect means, such as exhaustion, heat illness or injury. Hunters of this type will typically display adaptions for distance running, such as longer legs, temperature regulation, and specialized cardiovascular systems.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Postcanine megadontia</span>

Post-canine megadontia is a relative enlargement of the molars and premolars compared to the size of the incisors and canines. This phenomenon is seen in some early hominid ancestors such as Paranthropus aethiopicus.

<i>Ardipithecus ramidus</i> Extinct hominin from Early Pliocene Ethiopia

Ardipithecus ramidus is a species of australopithecine from the Afar region of Early Pliocene Ethiopia 4.4 million years ago (mya). A. ramidus, unlike modern hominids, has adaptations for both walking on two legs (bipedality) and life in the trees (arboreality). However, it would not have been as efficient at bipedality as humans, nor at arboreality as non-human great apes. Its discovery, along with Miocene apes, has reworked academic understanding of the chimpanzee–human last common ancestor from appearing much like modern-day chimpanzees, orangutans and gorillas to being a creature without a modern anatomical cognate.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human skeletal changes due to bipedalism</span> Evoltionary changes to the human skeleton as a consequence of bipedalism

The evolution of human bipedalism, which began in primates approximately four million years ago, or as early as seven million years ago with Sahelanthropus, or approximately twelve million years ago with Danuvius guggenmosi, has led to morphological alterations to the human skeleton including changes to the arrangement, shape, and size of the bones of the foot, hip, knee, leg, and the vertebral column. These changes allowed for the upright gait to be overall more energy efficient in comparison to quadrupeds. The evolutionary factors that produced these changes have been the subject of several theories that correspond with environmental changes on a global scale.

<i>Australopithecus sediba</i> Two-million-year-old hominin from the Cradle of Humankind

Australopithecus sediba is an extinct species of australopithecine recovered from Malapa Cave, Cradle of Humankind, South Africa. It is known from a partial juvenile skeleton, the holotype MH1, and a partial adult female skeleton, the paratype MH2. They date to about 1.98 million years ago in the Early Pleistocene, and coexisted with Paranthropus robustus and Homo ergaster / Homo erectus. Malapa is interpreted as having been a natural death trap, the base of a long vertical shaft which creatures could accidentally fall into. A. sediba was initially described as being a potential human ancestor, and perhaps the progenitor of Homo, but this is contested and it could also represent a late-surviving population or sister species of A. africanus which had earlier inhabited the area.

<i>Homo naledi</i> South African archaic human species

Homo naledi is an extinct hominin species discovered in 2013 in the Rising Star Cave system, Gauteng province, South Africa, dating to the Middle Pleistocene 335,000–236,000 years ago. The initial discovery comprises 1,550 specimens of bone, representing 737 different skeletal elements, and at least 15 different individuals. Despite this exceptionally high number of specimens, their classification with other Homo species remains unclear.

References

  1. ↑ Carrier, David R. (August–October 1984). "The Energetic Paradox of Human Running and Hominid Evolution". Current Anthropology . 25 (4): 483–95. doi:10.1086/203165. JSTOR   2742907. S2CID   15432016..
  2. ↑ Bramble, Dennis; Lieberman, Daniel (November 2004). "Endurance running and the evolution of Homo" (PDF). Nature. 432 (7015): 345–52. Bibcode:2004Natur.432..345B. doi:10.1038/nature03052. PMID   15549097. S2CID   2470602.
  3. ↑ Krantz, Grover S. (1968). "Brain size and hunting ability in earliest man". Current Anthropology. 9 (5): 450–451. doi:10.1086/200927. S2CID   143267326.
  4. ↑ Zimmer, Carl (17 November 2004). "The Evolution of Endurance: Physiologic adaptations may have made humans better runners". Science .
  5. ↑ Hunt, Kevin (1 December 1991). "Mechanical implications of chimpanzee positional behavior". American Journal of Biological Anthropology. 86 (4): 521–536. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330860408. PMID   1776659.
  6. ↑ Stern, Jack; Susman, Randall (1983). "The locomotor anatomy of Australopithecus afarensis". American Journal of Biological Anthropology. 60 (3): 279–317. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330600302. PMID   6405621.
  7. ↑ Lieberman, Daniel (2007). "Lieberman, Daniel E., et al. "The evolution of endurance running and the tyranny of ethnography: A reply to". Journal of Human Evolution. 53 (4): 439–442. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2007.07.002. PMID   17767947. S2CID   14996543.
  8. ↑ Alexander, R M. (2004). "Bipedal animals, and their differences from humans". Journal of Anatomy . 204 (5): 321–330. doi:10.1111/j.0021-8782.2004.00289.x. PMC   1571302 . PMID   15198697. S2CID   46335255.
  9. ↑ Lieberman, Daniel. "Britannica Biography: Daniel Lieberman".{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  10. ↑ Rasch, W.; Samson, P. (August 1991). "Heat loss from the human head during exercise". Journal of Applied Physiology. 71 (2): 590–595. doi:10.1152/jappl.1991.71.2.590. PMID   1938732.
  11. ↑ Wheeler, P.E. (1993). "Wheeler, P. E. "The influence of stature and body form on hominid energy and water budgets; a comparison of Australopithecus and early Homo physiques". Journal of Human Evolution. 24 (1): 13–28. doi:10.1006/jhev.1993.1003.
  12. ↑ Leiberman, Daniel (1 April 2011). The Evolution of the Human Head. Harvard University Press. doi:10.4159/9780674059443. ISBN   9780674059443.
  13. 1 2 Pontzer, Herman (2012). "Ecological Energetics in Early Homo". Current Anthropology . 53 (S6): S346–S358. doi:10.1086/667402. S2CID   31461168.
  14. ↑ "Unlike apes, humans were born to run, study says / Finding could help date human evolution -- but other scientists say the theory is bunk". SFGATE. 18 November 2004.
  15. 1 2 Crompton, R. H.; Vereecke, E. E.; Thorpe, S. K. S. (2008). "Locomotion and posture from the common hominoid ancestor to fully modern hominins, with special reference to the last common panin/hominin ancestor". Journal of Anatomy . 212 (4): 501–543. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7580.2008.00870.x. PMC   2409101 . PMID   18380868.
  16. 1 2 Steudel-Numbers, Karen L.; Weaver, Timothy D.; Wall-Scheffler, Cara M. (2010). "The evolution of human running: Effects of changes in lower-limb length on locomotor economy". Journal of Human Evolution. 143 (4): 601–611. doi:10.1002/ajpa.21356. PMC   3011859 . PMID   20623603.
  17. ↑ Cunningham, C.B.; Schilling, N.; Anders, C.; Carrier, D.R. (1 March 2010). "The influence of foot posture on the cost of transport in humans". The Journal of Experimental Biology . 213 (5): 790–797. doi:10.1242/jeb.038984. PMID   20154195. S2CID   14834170.
  18. ↑ Ruxton, Graeme D.; Wilkinson, David M. (2012). "Endurance running and its relevance to scavenging by early hominins". Evolution . 67 (3): 861–867. doi: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.2012.01815.x . PMID   23461334. S2CID   41162625.
  19. ↑ Deckers, K.P. (15 July 2017). "These bones were made for jogging: an analysis of the lower limb skeletal evidence for the endurance running hypothesis". Inter-Section. 3: 7–13. hdl:1887/3210949.
  20. ↑ Carrier, David R.; Schilling, Nadja; Anders, Christoph (2015). "Muscle activation during maximal effort tasks: evidence of the selective forces that shaped the musculoskeletal system of humans". Biology Open . 4 (12): 1635–1642. doi:10.1242/bio.014381. PMC   4736035 . PMID   26538637.
  21. ↑ Bartlett, Jamie L.; Sumner, Bonnie; Ellis, Richard G.; Kram, Rodger (2014). "Activity and Functions of the Human Gluteal Muscles in Walking, Running, Sprinting, and Climbing". American Journal of Physical Anthropology . 153 (1): 124–131. doi:10.1002/ajpa.22419. PMID   24218079. S2CID   29957031.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.