Jebel Irhoud

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Jebel Irhoud
Adrar n Iɣud / ⴰⴷⵔⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵓⴷ
Jebel Irhoud-1 NMNH.jpg
Jebel Irhoud-1, dated 286±32 kya, [1] Smithsonian Natural History Museum
Morocco relief location map.jpg
Archaeological site icon (red).svg
Location in Morocco
Alternative nameجبل إيغود
LocationEast of Safi
Region Morocco
Coordinates 31°51′18″N8°52′21″W / 31.85500°N 8.87250°W / 31.85500; -8.87250
Height592 m
History
Periods Lower Paleolithic
Associated with Homo sapiens
Site notes
Excavation dates1991

Jebel Irhoud or Adrar n Ighoud (Standard Moroccan Tamazight : ⴰⴷⵔⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵓⴷ, romanized: Adrar n Iɣud; Arabic : جبل إيغود, Moroccan Arabic:žbəl iġud), is an archaeological site located just north of the town of Tlet Ighoud in Youssoufia Province, approximately 50 km (30 mi) south-east of the city of Safi in Morocco. It is noted for the hominin fossils that have been found there since the discovery of the site in 1961. Originally thought to be Neanderthals, the specimens have since been assigned to Homo sapiens and, as reported in 2017, have been dated to roughly 300,000 years ago (286±32 ka for the Irhoud 3 mandible, 315±34 ka based on other fossils and the flint artefacts found nearby). [2] [3] [4] [5]

Contents

Site

The site is the remnant of a solutional cave filled with 8 metres (26 ft) of deposits from the Pleistocene era, located on the eastern side of a karstic outcrop of limestone [6] at an elevation of 562 metres (1,844 ft). [7] It was discovered in 1961 when the area was being mined for the mineral baryte. [8] [9] A miner discovered a skull in the wall of the cave, extracted it, and gave it to an engineer, who kept it as a souvenir for a time. Eventually, it was handed over to the University of Rabat, which organized a joint French-Moroccan expedition to the site that was headed by anthropologist Émile Ennouchi. [10] [11]

Excavation History

Ennouchi and his team began their excavation of Jebel Irhoud in 1961. Before beginning excavation, Ennouchi’s team removed 2000 tons of debris that covered the archaeological layers using low-level explosives. [12] The excavation completed by Ennouchi’s team used horizontal arbitrary 50 cm stratigraphic layers, or spits. [12] Ennouchi's team identified the remains of approximately 30 species of mammals, some of which are associated with the Middle Pleistocene, but the stratigraphic provenance of these remains is unknown. During the Ennouchi excavations, two hominin fossils, Irhoud 2 and Irhoud 3, were discovered and identified as adults and children. [12] The associated lithic technology was identified as Mousterian, leading the Irhoud hominins to initially be identified as Neanderthals. [12] Ennouchi’s team was also the first to attempt to date the site. They used radiocarbon dating, but their results revealed that the site was older than 50,000 years and, therefore, was beyond the capabilities of radiocarbon dating. [12]

Another excavation was carried out by Jacques Tixier and Roger de Bayle des Hermens in 1967 and 1969, during which 22 layers were identified in the cave in search of more hominin fossils. [12] Irhoud 4 and 5 were identified during these excavations and were the first human remains found within a known stratigraphic context at the site. [12] These hominin remains were found in association with a tool industry classified as Levallois Mousterian. [6]

Jean-Jacque Hublin conducted more recent excavations beginning in 2004. [13] These excavations continued the work of the 1960s excavations, performing a more detailed study of site stratigraphy and context. [13] It was during these excavations that Irhoud 10 and Irhoud 11 were discovered, both of which were identified as adult individuals. [13] [14] Recent work identifies the Jebel Irhoud individuals as early members of the H. sapiens clade. [15]  

Stratigraphy

The site's stratigraphic layers were originally defined during the excavations in the late 1980s, with different stratigraphic layers identified during more recent research, this time defined using geological principles. [13] A description of the more recent site stratigraphy is as follows: Layers 1-3 do not contain much archaeological material, layers 4-6 contain some archaeological material (lithic tools) and zooarchaeological remains (primarily Gazella species), Layer 7 contains sediment described as “cemented” and contains a higher density of archaeological materials (lithic tools, some burnt) and zooarchaeological remains (primarily bovids) than the upper layers and corresponds to layers where the first Jebel Irhoud fossils were found. [13]

Geology

Jebel Irhoud is a site with much geological diversity, including Triassic formations and Charkarkar cave, and Ganntour phosphate deposits; although it has been noted that this diversity is still poorly known nor promoted to the public. [16] The current geomorphology of Jebel Irhoud was created during an event called the Hercynian orogeny. [16] This event occurred between 310 and 280 Ma and created westward vergent folds. [16] Three primary geological formation contributing the Jebel Irhoud landscape: (1) Barite veins, (2) zones of barite or “substitution,” and (3) karst deposits. [16]

Dating

Early Work: Morphology & Lithic technology

Initially, the finds were interpreted as Neanderthal, as the stone tools found with them were believed to be associated exclusively with Neanderthals.

The remains had archaic phenotypical features believed to be representative of the Neanderthals rather than Homo sapiens . They were thought to be approximately 40,000 years old, but this was thrown into doubt by faunal evidence suggesting a Middle Pleistocene date (see: Faunal Remains and Environmental Context), approximately 160,000 years ago. Because of that, the fossils were reappraised as representing an archaic form of Homo sapiens or perhaps a population of Homo sapiens that had interbred with Neanderthals. This was consistent with the concept that the then-oldest-known remains of Homo sapiens, dated to approximately 195,000 years ago and found in Omo Kibish, Ethiopia, indicated an eastern African origin for humans at approximately 200,000 years ago. The Ethiopian Omo remains we more recently dated to about 233,000 years old.

Recent Dating Methods: Thermoluminescence dating & Burnt Lithics

Dating carried out by the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig revealed that the Jebel Irhoud site was far older than first thought. Fresh excavations carried out in 2004 by the Hublin team revealed more than 20 new bones from the remains of at least five people, and a number of stone tools. The finds included part of a skull, a jawbone, teeth, and limb bones that had come from three adults, a juvenile, and a child aged about seven-and-a-half years old.

Some of the tools had been burned due to fires being lit on top of them, presumably after they had been discarded. Researchers used thermoluminescence dating to ascertain when the burning of these stone tools occurred and, by proxy, the age of the fossil bones that were found in the same deposit layer.

Jean-Jacques Hublin at Jebel Irhoud (Morocco), pointing to the crushed human skull (Irhoud 10), whose orbits are visible just beyond his finger tip Hublin at Jebel Irhoud.jpg
Jean-Jacques Hublin at Jebel Irhoud (Morocco), pointing to the crushed human skull (Irhoud 10), whose orbits are visible just beyond his finger tip

In 2017, the burnt tools were dated to approximately 315,000 years ago, indicating that the fossils are of approximately the same age. This conclusion was confirmed by recalculating the age of the Irhoud 3 mandible, which produced an age range compatible with that of the tools, at roughly 280,000 to 350,000 years old. If they hold up, these dates would make the remains by far the earliest known examples of Homo sapiens. [17] [18] [19]

This suggests that rather than arising in East Africa approximately 200,000 years ago, modern humans may have been present across the length of Africa 100,000 years earlier. According to study author Jean-Jacques Hublin, "The idea is that early Homo sapiens dispersed around the continent and elements of human modernity appeared in different places, and so different parts of Africa contributed to the emergence of what we call modern humans today." [20] Early humans may have comprised a large, interbreeding population dispersed across Africa approximately 330,000 to 300,000 years ago. Thus, the rise of modern humans may have taken place on a continental scale rather than being confined to a particular corner of Africa. [21]

Human remains

The site is most famous for its hominin fossils, and since its discovery, twenty-two hominin fossil remains have been found at Jebel Irhoud. [12] When first discovered, they were interpreted as Neanderthal remains. [22] Since then, they have also been suggested as being an early form of H. sapiens that interbred with Neanderthals, or they represented a different late-surviving archaic population in Africa. [22] Recent research disputes these claims, concluding that the Jebel Irhoud hominin remains represent an early form of the H. sapiens clade, present during the Middle Pleistocene. [22]

Ennouchi discovered a skull that he termed Irhoud 1. It is now on display in the Rabat Archaeological Museum. The following year, he discovered part of another skull, designated Irhoud 2, and subsequently uncovered the lower mandible of a child, designated Irhoud 3. Tixier's excavation found a humerus designated Irhoud 4, and a hip bone recorded as Irhoud 5.

Further excavations were carried out by American researchers during the 1990s and by a team led by Jean-Jacques Hublin from 2004. [7] [23] [17] Hublin and colleagues recently discovered Irhoud 10 and 11, both of which were identified as adults and were integral in determining the species classification of the hominin remains. [22] Hublin and colleagues have also provided the following table of hominin remains found at Jebel Irhoud. [22]

Jebel Irhoud Specimen List [24]
SpecimensItem IDAnatomical PartYearStratigraphic Position
Irhoud 1No IDCranium1961Lower deposits
Irhoud 2No IDCranium1962Lower deposits
Irhoud 3No IDMandible (juvenile)1968Lower deposits
Irhoud 4No IDHumerus (juvenile)1969Layer 18 of Tixier
Irhoud 5No IDCoxal (juvenile)1969Layer 18 of de Bayle des Hermens & Tixier
Irhoud 6No IDMandible fragment1961-69Identified among faunal remains
Irhoud 74766Lower right first premolar2004Initial cleaning
Irhoud 84767Distal part of left lower molar2004Initial cleaning
Irhoud 91653First or second lower molar2006Layer 4
Irhoud 101678, 1679, 1680, 2178, 2259Cranium2007Layer 7
Irhoud 114765, 3752Mandible2007Layer 7
Irhoud 122196Lower incisor2007Layer 7
Irhoud 132252Left proximal femur2007Layer 7
Irhoud 142381, 2383Rib2009Layer 7
Irhoud 152401Rib2009Layer 7
Irhoud 162561, 2565Humerus (juvenile)2009Layer 7
Irhoud 172670Right proximal femur2009Layer 7
Irhoud 182838Lumbar vertebra2007Initial cleaning
Irhoud 193747, 3748, 3749Fibula2009Layer 7
Irhoud 203751Cervical vertebra2009Initial cleaning
Irhoud 214200Maxilla2011Layer A
Irhoud 224502, 4503Upper second and third right molars2011Layer A

Hublin and his team also attempted unsuccessfully to obtain DNA samples from the hominin fossils. Genomic analysis would have provided necessary evidence supporting the conclusion that these fossils are representative of the main lineage leading up to modern humanity and that Homo sapiens had dispersed and developed all across Africa. Because of the unclear boundaries between different species of the genus Homo, and the lack of genomic evidence from these fossils, some doubt the classification of these fossils as Homo sapiens. [1]

Morphology

A composite reconstruction of the earliest-known Homo sapiens fossils from Jebel Irhoud, based on micro-computed tomographic scans of multiple original fossils Homo sapiens from Jebel Irhoud.jpg
A composite reconstruction of the earliest-known Homo sapiens fossils from Jebel Irhoud, based on micro-computed tomographic scans of multiple original fossils

The most important anatomical considerations when classifying the Jebel Irhoud remains are these specimens' facial/cranial, dental, and mandibular morphologies. [22] Recent studies based on these morphological attributes have identified the Jebel Irhoud individuals as being closer aligned with modern human morphology than archaic hominin morphology, placing them within the early stages of the Homo sapiens clade. [22]

Excavations carried out in 2004 by the Hublin team revealed more than 20 new bones from the remains of at least five individuals and stone tools. The finds included part of a skull, a jawbone, teeth, and limb bones that had come from three adults, a juvenile, and a child aged about seven-and-a-half years old. [25] The facial characteristics of the skull resemble modern H. sapiens but had much larger lower jaws and more elongated posterior braincases. They have similar features to the Florisbad Skull, which dates to 260,000 years ago, discovered in Florisbad, South Africa. The Florisbad Skull has now been attributed to Homo sapiens as a result of the Jebel Irhoud finds. [20] [26]

Facial and Cranial Morphology

Modern and early modern human facial morphology is defined by a short face that sits underneath the braincase. [22] The Jebel Irhoud individuals also had very thick brow ridges and lacked prognathism, although more recent work has shown that brow ridges among the Jebel Irhoud hominins are variable and may be attributed to sexual dimorphism. [22] Despite some of these facial attributes that might look archaic, statistical analyses have placed the facial shape of the Jebel Irhoud specimens (specifically 1 & 11) as being more closely related to early and recent modern humans. [22] This research was completed using 3D facial reconstructions of fossil specimens. [22]

When comparing the Jebel Irhoud fossils with those of modern humans, the main difference is the elongated shape of the braincase. According to the researchers, this indicates that brain shape, and possibly brain functions, evolved within the Homo sapiens lineage and relatively recently. [17] [27] [20] Evolutionary changes in brain shape are likely associated with genetic changes in brain organization, interconnection, and development [28] and may reflect adaptive changes in the way the brain functions. [29] Such changes may have caused the human brain to become rounder and two regions in the brain's posterior region to enlarge during thousands of years of evolution. [29]

Dentition

The dental morphology of the Jebel Irhoud individuals also aligns more closely to early modern humans than to archaic hominins. [22] Although researchers note that their teeth are larger than early modern humans, their third maxillary molar (M3), crown morphology, and molar morphological complexity still place them closer to early modern humans than Neanderthals. [22] The degree of tooth development found in the Jebel Irhoud hominins is similar to that of modern European children of the same age, but teeth roots develop faster than for modern humans (and slower than for apes and some other fossil hominids). Tooth crowns took a longer time to form than in modern humans. [30]

Mandibular morphology

Mandibular morphology refers to the size and shape of the mandible or jaw. The most convincing evidence from the study of the Jebel Irhoud specimens’ mandibular morphology comes from Irhoud 3. Irhoud 3 has an inverted T-shaped chin, something typically found in Homo sapiens. [22]

While the Jebel Irhoud specimens initially were noted to have been similar to later Aterian and Iberomaurusian specimens, [31] further examinations revealed that the Jebel Irhoud specimens differ from them. The Jebel Irhoud specimens have a continuous supraorbital torus, while the Aterian and Iberomaurasian specimens have a discontinuous supraorbital torus or, in some cases, none at all. From this, it was concluded that the Jebel Irhoud specimens represent archaic Homo sapiens while the Aterian and Iberomaurasian specimens represent anatomically modern Homo sapiens. Despite this, it was noted that the Jebel Irhoud specimen, whose cranium was complete enough to assess, showed "hints of 'modern' basicranial flexion in the relationship of the face and vault," and the teeth of another Jebel Irhoud specimen were subjected to synchrotron analysis that suggested "a modern developmental pattern." [32]

Stone Tools

The stone tool/lithic assemblage has been associated with Mousterian lithic assemblages, but more recently has been described as a Middle Stone Age assemblage due to the presence of prepared core or Levallois technology and the desire to move towards the usage of an African industry name instead of a European one. [33]

Scrapers are the most common tool type found in the assemblage (specifically Mousterian points and déjeté scrapers), accompanied by cores, piercers, notched pieces, and some flake debris. [34] [33] Researchers have noticed that the assemblage contains many retouched tools. [33] Bifacial tools and tools indicative of the Aterian industry are also missing from the assemblage. [12] [34]

Stone tools found at Jebel Irhoud Stone tools from Jebel Irhoud.png
Stone tools found at Jebel Irhoud

Recent analyses of the lithic assemblages suggest that Trixier’s original observations of the lithic assemblages excavated in the 1960s are still consistent in relation to recently excavated assemblages. [34] This assemblage's most common raw materials are flint/chert, quartzite, and quartz. Of these raw materials flint/chert tools are more commonly retouched. [34] The raw material source for the flint tools has been identified as Jebel Khiyyat (Mekala). [12] Jebel Khiyyat is 30 km. south of Jebel Irhoud. [12] The low frequencies of flake debris relative to complete tools and high percentage of retouched tools have caused researchers to suggest that little knapping occurred on-site. [33] The presence of stone tools that have been burned alongside faunal remains and evidence of butchery suggests that the tools were probably used alongside fires at Jebel Irhoud. [34] [33]

Faunal Remains and Environmental Context

The faunal assemblage from Jebel Irhoud includes numerous rodents, golden jackal, gazelle (outnumbers all other bovids), Alcelaphine species, leopards, lions, small cats, hyena, and wild boar. [12] [35] [36] [37] Of the faunal remains, only one gazelle bone shows evidence of carnivore chewing (from Layer 6), while most bones in the cave indicate human butchery. [34] Cut marks on small and large bovid ribs, tibia, and humeri occur in layers 4, 6, and 7. [34] The breakage patterns found on these bones are associated with breakage occurring when the animal bones were fresh, i.e., recently killed. [34] Percussion markings on the ends of long bones also hint at potential modification for bone marrow extraction. [34] Also among the faunal assemblages are ostrich egg shells, although more work is needed before assuming that this results from anthropogenic accumulation. [34]

The rodent assemblage was likely accumulated by a carnivore (such as an owl), indicating a Late Middle Pleistocene date for the site. The rodent assemblage, such as the inclusion of G. grandis and Ellobius , also indicates that grasslands probably dominated the surrounding landscape and that during the Middle Pleistocene, the Jebel Irhoud environment was less arid than during the Upper Pleistocene. [35] This is based on the prevalence of muris in the mammalian records of the Middle Pleistocene layer recovered during the Ennouchi excavations, and the reduced species diversity found in the Upper Pleistocene. [37] The presence of muris in the Middle Pleistocene levels indicates a warmer and more humid climate than an arid one. [37]

Cultural and Heritage Importance

In recent years, Jebel Irhoud has been identified as an important place for tourism and cultural heritage, both for its anthropological and geological importance. [16] [38] Proposals to increase tourism to the site have been made, believing that it will enhance the living conditions and socio-economic opportunities for nearby populations. [16]

Socio-Economic Potential

Jebel Barkal and the surrounding areas have immense socio-economic potential to provide job opportunities and increase tourism. [16] Sustainable tourism is a primary goal based on advertising the landscape and the area’s cultural value. Educational value has also been identified as an important aspect of the Jebel Irhoud site, reflected by the site's continued scientific interest and value. [16] Exhibitions and educational workshops or events for children have been proposed to aid the development of the educational resources at the site. [16] Researchers have recognized the potential for jobs generated by increased tourism. [16] Additionally, the surrounding area has been highlighted for its potential for barite mining and the jobs provided by this. [16] Recently, the Jebel Irhoud geosite was approved to become a part of the larger Youssoufia geopark project. [16]

Challenges

It has been acknowledged that continued work on on-site safety, posters, brochures, trail marking, and the geopark's role as an educational and tourist attraction can be improved. [16] Currently, tourist resources are only available after a while near Jebel Irhoud but are present in nearby towns. [16] Tourism safety is a concern due to current mining initiatives. [16] Geo-conservation has been identified as something that needs to become a primary concern going forward as the geopark is developed. [16]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Early modern human</span> Old Stone Age Homo sapiens

Early modern human (EMH), or anatomically modern human (AMH), are terms used to distinguish Homo sapiens that are anatomically consistent with the range of phenotypes seen in contemporary humans, from extinct archaic human species. This distinction is useful especially for times and regions where anatomically modern and archaic humans co-existed, for example, in Paleolithic Europe. Among the oldest known remains of Homo sapiens are those found at the Omo-Kibish I archaeological site in south-western Ethiopia, dating to about 233,000 to 196,000 years ago, the Florisbad site in South Africa, dating to about 259,000 years ago, and the Jebel Irhoud site in Morocco, dated about 315,000 years ago.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Herto Man</span> Number of early modern human fossils found in Herto Bouri, Ethiopia

Herto Man refers to human remains discovered in 1997 from the Upper Herto member of the Bouri Formation in the Afar Triangle, Ethiopia. The remains have been dated as between 154,000 and 160,000 years old. The discovery of Herto Man was especially significant at the time, falling within a long gap in the fossil record between 300 and 100 thousand years ago and representing the oldest dated H. sapiens remains then described.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mousterian</span> European Middle Paleolithic culture

The Mousterian is an archaeological industry of stone tools, associated primarily with the Neanderthals in Europe, and to the earliest anatomically modern humans in North Africa and West Asia. The Mousterian largely defines the latter part of the Middle Paleolithic, the middle of the West Eurasian Old Stone Age. It lasted roughly from 160,000 to 40,000 BP. If its predecessor, known as Levallois or Levallois-Mousterian, is included, the range is extended to as early as c. 300,000–200,000 BP. The main following period is the Aurignacian of Homo sapiens.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">African archaeology</span> Archaeology conducted in Africa

Africa has the longest record of human habitation in the world. The first hominins emerged 6–7 million years ago, and among the earliest anatomically modern human skulls found so far were discovered at Omo Kibish,Jebel Irhoud, and Florisbad.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aterian</span> Archaeological culture

The Aterian is a Middle Stone Age stone tool industry centered in North Africa, from Mauritania to Egypt, but also possibly found in Oman and the Thar Desert. The earliest Aterian dates to c. 150,000 years ago, at the site of Ifri n'Ammar in Morocco. However, most of the early dates cluster around the beginning of the Last Interglacial, around 150,000 to 130,000 years ago, when the environment of North Africa began to ameliorate. The Aterian disappeared around 20,000 years ago.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology</span> Research institute based in Leipzig, Germany

The Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology is a research institute based in Leipzig, Germany, that was founded in 1997. It is part of the Max Planck Society network.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lower Paleolithic</span> Earliest subdivision of the Paleolithic

The Lower Paleolithic is the earliest subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age. It spans the time from around 3.3 million years ago when the first evidence for stone tool production and use by hominins appears in the current archaeological record, until around 300,000 years ago, spanning the Oldowan and Acheulean lithics industries.

The Omo remains are a collection of hominin bones discovered between 1967 and 1974 at the Omo Kibish sites near the Omo River, in Omo National Park in south-western Ethiopia. The bones were recovered by a scientific team from the Kenya National Museums directed by Richard Leakey and others. The remains from Kamoya's Hominid Site (KHS) were called Omo I and those from Paul I. Abell's Hominid Site (PHS) were called Omo II.

Human taxonomy is the classification of the human species within zoological taxonomy. The systematic genus, Homo, is designed to include both anatomically modern humans and extinct varieties of archaic humans. Current humans have been designated as subspecies Homo sapiens sapiens, differentiated, according to some, from the direct ancestor, Homo sapiens idaltu.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Archaic humans</span> Extinct relatives of modern humans

Archaic humans is a broad category denoting all species of the genus Homo that are not Homo sapiens, which are sometimes also called Homo sapiens sapiens, in which case the singular use of sapiens has been applied to some archaic humans as well. Among the earliest modern human remains are those from Jebel Irhoud in Morocco, Florisbad in South Africa (259 ka), Omo-Kibish I in southern Ethiopia, and Apidima Cave in Southern Greece. Some examples of archaic humans include H. antecessor (1200–770 ka), H. bodoensis (1200–300 ka), H. heidelbergensis (600–200 ka), Neanderthals, H. rhodesiensis (300–125 ka) and Denisovans.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">South Asian Stone Age</span> Stone tools from Attirampakkam, South India

The South Asian Stone Age spans the prehistoric age from the earliest use of stone tools in the Paleolithic period to the rise of agriculture, domestication, and pottery in the Neolithic period across present-day India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, and Sri Lanka. As in other parts of the world, in South Asia, the divisions of the stone age into the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic periods do not carry precise chronological boundaries; instead, they describe broad phases of technological and cultural development based on the tools and artifacts found at various archaeological sites.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Early human migrations</span> Spread of humans from Africa through the world

Early human migrations are the earliest migrations and expansions of archaic and modern humans across continents. They are believed to have begun approximately 2 million years ago with the early expansions out of Africa by Homo erectus. This initial migration was followed by other archaic humans including H. heidelbergensis, which lived around 500,000 years ago and was the likely ancestor of Denisovans and Neanderthals as well as modern humans. Early hominids had likely crossed land bridges that have now sunk.

The prehistory of Africa spans from the earliest human presence in Africa until the ancient period in the history of Africa.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Prehistory</span> Span of time before recorded history

Prehistory, also called pre-literary history, is the period of human history between the first known use of stone tools by hominins c. 3.3 million years ago and the beginning of recorded history with the invention of writing systems. The use of symbols, marks, and images appears very early among humans, but the earliest known writing systems appeared c. 5,200 years ago. It took thousands of years for writing systems to be widely adopted, with writing having spread to almost all cultures by the 19th century. The end of prehistory therefore came at different times in different places, and the term is less often used in discussing societies where prehistory ended relatively recently.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Olorgesailie</span> Archaeological site in Kenya

Olorgesailie is a geological formation in East Africa, on the floor of the Eastern Rift Valley in southern Kenya, 67 kilometres (42 mi) southwest of Nairobi along the road to Lake Magadi. It contains a group of Lower Paleolithic archaeological sites. Olorgesailie is noted for the large number of Acheulean hand axes discovered there that are associated with animal butchering. According to the National Museums of Kenya, the finds are internationally significant for archaeology, palaeontology, and geology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Florisbad Skull</span> Hominin fossil

The Florisbad Skull is an important human fossil of the early Middle Stone Age, representing either late Homo heidelbergensis or early Homo sapiens. It was discovered in 1932 by T. F. Dreyer at the Florisbad site, Free State Province, South Africa.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jean-Jacques Hublin</span> French paleoanthropologist

Jean-Jacques Hublin is a French paleoanthropologist. He is a professor at the Max Planck Society, Leiden University and the University of Leipzig and the founder and director of the Department of Human Evolution at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany. He is best known for his work on the Pleistocene hominins, and on the Neandertals and early Homo sapiens, in particular.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Katerina Harvati</span> Greek paleoanthropologist

Katerina Harvati is a Greek paleoanthropologist and expert in human evolution. She specializes in the broad application of 3-D geometric morphometric and virtual anthropology methods to paleoanthropology. Since 2009, she is full professor and director of Paleoanthropology at the University of Tübingen, Germany. From 2020 to 2023 she was Director of the Institute for Archaeological Sciences and since 2023 she is Director of the Senckenberg Centre for Human Evolution and Palaeoenvironment at the University of Tübingen.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Salé cranium</span> Enigmatic Middle Pleistocene hominin specimen

The Salé cranium is a pathological specimen of enigmatic Middle Pleistocene hominin discovered from Salé, Morocco by quarrymen in 1971. Since its discovery, the specimen has variously been classified as Homo sapiens, Homo erectus, Homo rhodesiensis/bodoensis, or Homo heidelbergensis. Its pathological condition and mosaic anatomy has proved difficult to classify. It was discovered with few faunal fossils and no lithics, tentatively dated to 400 ka by some sources.

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