The Romans had just defeated the Seleucids in the Roman–Seleucid War and were in the midst of concluding a treaty with the latter. The Romans had then turned their attention towards the Gallic tribes of Galatia who had migrated to Asia Minor almost 100 years prior to this military engagement. Ancient historians noted that Gnaeus Manlius Vulso, the consul, had justified the invasion by saying that it was in retaliation for the Galatians supplying troops to the Seleucids during the war; and that Vulso had embarked on this campaign without the permission of the Roman Senate. However, modern historians argue that the war had either the covert or tacit approval of the Senate.
Joined by troops from Pergamum, the Romans marched inland, avoiding cities held by the Seleucids and attacking those which had not formally allied with the latter. Modern historians argue that this measure was taken to preserve the Roman–Seleucid truce while also weakening potential Seleucid allies. The Roman army then marched south, possibly to receive supplies from Roman ships at the port of Attalia (modern day Antalya). They then marched northward and unsuccessfully attempted to negotiate with the Galatians. The Romans defeated the Galatians in a battle on Mount Olympus and followed up the victory by defeating a larger army near Ancyra (modern day Ankara in Turkey).
These defeats forced the Galatians to sue for peace and the Romans returned to the coast of Asia Minor, where Vulso concluded the Treaty of Apamea with the Seleucids. The territories which the Roman army had marched through during this campaign were transferred from the Seleucids to either Rome or its allies, which modern historians argue was one of the purposes of the campaign. When Vulso returned to Rome, he was charged with threatening the peace between the Seleucids and Rome. He was cleared and was granted a triumph by the Senate. As a result of the campaign, Greco-Asian religious rituals and luxury began to be introduced to Rome, which ancient historians blamed for the moral decline of the Roman Republic.
Gnaeus Manlius Vulso, elected as the new consul and deployed to Asia, arrived at Ephesus in 189 BC, probably during the month of March or April.[3] Vulso assumed command of Scipio's army, who were now idle since the Seleucids had been defeated.[4][5] He was sent to conclude the treaty Scipio was arranging. However, he was not content with the task given to him and he started to plan a new war.[6] He addressed the soldiers, congratulated them on their victory and then proposed a new war against the Gauls of Galatia in Asia Minor.[7] The pretext he used for the invasion was that the Galatians had supplied soldiers to the Seleucid army at the Battle of Magnesia.[1] Grainger observed that most historians had cited the ancient Roman historian Livy to argue that the principal reason for the invasion was Vulso's desire to seize the wealth of the Galatians, who had become rich from plundering their neighbors, and to gain glory for himself.[8]
A proposal had been introduced in the Roman Senate to reduce the size of Vulso's army, but it was defeated. Modern historians thus argue that the Senate was aware of the likelihood of a war with the Galatians,[9] and that it had allowed the continued deployment of the army either to counterbalance the Seleucids or fill the power vacuum created by their defeat.[2][10][11] For the size of this army, the historian John D. Grainger arrives at a possible range of 30 to 35 thousand total soldiers, including those fielded by the allies.[12]
A statue of Attalus II in modern Turkey
This war was the first occasion on which a Roman general had started a war without the permission of the senate or the people. This was a dangerous precedent and became an example for the future.[13] Vulso started his preparations for the war by summoning the Pergamese to help. However, the King of Pergamum, Eumenes II, was in Rome, so his brother, Attalus II, who was serving as the regent, took command of the Pergamese army. He joined the Roman army a few days later with 1,000 infantry and 500 cavalry.[14][7]
March inland
The combined Roman–Pergamese army started their march from Ephesus. They advanced inland passing Magnesia on the Maeander and the city of Alabanda where they were met by 1,000 infantry and 300 cavalry led by Attalus' brother, Athenaios.[7] They then marched to Antiochia where they were met by Antiochus' son, Seleucus, who offered food supplies as part of the treaty that was being concluded. The army then marched through the mountainous regions of Caria, Phrygia and Pisidia. Grainger notes that the army passed through or encamped at cities like Gordiu Teichos, Tabae and Eriza; these cities were relatively poorer than those to the immediate north: Aphrodisias, Heraclea at Latmus, Apollonia and Themisonium. Grainger argues that Vulso chose not to pass through these wealthier cities because they were fortified by the Seleucids and an attack on them could trigger a new war. Grainger thus posits that Vulso's primary intent in this campaign was to weaken Seleucid allies, not to loot.[15][16]
Map of Asia Minor with its regions marked
The army then advanced into the territory of Cibyra, ruled by the tyrant Moagetes. Moagetes was able to persuade Vulso to accept 100 talents of silver as indemnity and promised to provide him with 1,000 medimnoi of wheat.[lower-alpha 1][18] When Vulso crossed the River Colobatus, he was met by ambassadors from the town of Sinda in Pisidia. The ambassadors asked for assistance against the city of Termessos who had taken over all their country except for the capital.[19] The consul agreed to the offer. He entered Termessian territory, allowing them to enter his alliance for fifty talents and for their withdrawal from Sindian territory.[19][20]
Vulso marched for 2 days via Pogla and Andeda to seize the city of Cormasa in Pisidia, and there seized a large booty. The archaeologist George Ewart Bean posited that Cormasa was the modern village of Eğnes near Burdur,[21] while the historian Alan S. Hall posited that it was located east of the Lysis river,[22] which has been triangulated near modern Çeltikçi.[23] Grainger notes that Vulso did not fully enter Pamphylia and instead chose to travel north.[24] He then took the city of Lysinoe before accepting a tribute of fifty talents and 20,000 medimnoi of barley and wheat from the city of Sagalassus.[lower-alpha 2][25] Grainger provides a lower bound of 275 talents of silver and 60,000 medimnoi of grain for the total loot during the marches;[26] the food being sufficient for 41 days for about 35,000 soldiers.[27] He notes that Vulso had thus extracted a substantial amount of money and food from probable Seleucid allies, thus reducing the resources they could have provided to the Seleucids for a new war.[24][28]
The consul reached the Rhotrine Springs and he was once again met by Seleucus, who took the injured and sick Romans with him to Apamea and provided some guides to the Romans.[29] Vulso, like he did during his previous marches, took care to avoid Seleucid-controlled cities; namely Seleucia Sidera, Apollonia, Lysias and Dokimeion. The Romans instead marched from Acoridos Come to Metropolis, then to Synnada and finally Beudos. Grainger argues that the guides provided by Seleucus were not helping the Romans with navigation but with safe passage. The Romans found the cities on their route deserted; Livy says this was due to fear of the Romans, Grainger argues it could have been a Seleucid measure to avoid skirmishes and thus protect the truce.[30]
Map of Asia Minor with the major cities marked
They soon arrived on the border with the Tolistobogii, one of the three Galatian tribes. The consul held an assembly and addressed his troops about the upcoming war. Vulso then sent envoys to Eposognatus, the chief of a section of the Tolistobogii, the only chief who was friendly with Pergamum.[31] The latter was the only Galatian chief who had chosen to not ally with the Seleucids and had not sent them troops.[32] Eposognatus did not have power over all members of the Tolistobogii; the Galatians were not a unified polity, their tribes and chiefs could each act independently.[33] The envoys returned and replied that the chief of the Tolistobogii had requested the Romans not to invade his territory. He also claimed that he would attempt to force the surrender of the other chiefs.[31]
The army marched deeper inland and pitched camp near a Galatian stronghold called Cuballum/Caballum, where Vulso had captured what is assumed to be a Galatian oppidum. While they were there, the Galatian cavalry attacked the army's advance guard, drove it back towards the Roman camp and caused significant casualties. Then the Roman cavalry counter-attacked and drove back the Galatians, who might have broken their formations. The Galatian attack might have been intended for reconnaissance.[34] Vulso then crossed over to the northern bank of the Sangarius River, where priests from Pessinus met him and prophesied his victory.[9]
The next day, the Romans and the Pergamese arrived at the city of Gordion[35] and found it deserted, however, they still destroyed it.[36] As they camped there, they received a messenger sent by Eposognatus. The messenger reported that Eposognatus had failed in persuading the Galatians not to attack and that they were mustering nearby in the mountains.[31] The Tolistobogii and the Trocmi, the latter under the command of their chief Gaulotos, occupied Mount Olympus, while the Tectosagi went to another mountain.[37] This information was received from Oroanda, a Phrygian village in the region;[35] Oroanda is thought to be located on the southwest bank of Lake Trogitis,[38] modern day Lake Suğla.[39] On Mount Olympus, the Galatians had fortified themselves with a ditch and other defensive works.[34][40] For the first two days, the Romans scouted the mountains. On their first patrol, the Romans were attacked by the Galatian cavalry, who outnumbered the Roman cavalry guarding the patrol by two times and pushed the Romans back to their camp.[36]
The Çile Dağı hill at top right, thought to be the site of the Battle of Mount Olympus, as seen from Gordion
On the third day, the Romans attacked the Galatian position with their light infantry from Thrace and Trallia. The Roman auxiliary archers, slingers and javelinists inflicted heavy losses on the poorly armored Galatians, while those who attempted to get into close combat were overcome by the superior weapons and armor of the Roman velites. When the Roman legionaries finally stormed the Galatian camp, the defenders fled down the mountains; many fell down cliffs or succumbed to attacks by the Roman-allied cavalry at the foothills. The Galatians lost 40,000 people dead or captured, Grainger notes that even Livy, whose numbers are unreliable, had doubted these figures. A Roman unit later arrived at the camp to retrieve the loot.[41][42] The location of Mount Olympus is thought to be Çile Dağı, a hill located between Gordion and Ancyra.[43]
Battle of Ancyra
Map of Galatia with the possible locations for the Battle of Mount Olympus and Ancyra
After the Roman victory at Mount Olympus, the Tectosagi under the command of their chief Komboiomaros asked to meet Vulso for a conference halfway between their camp and Ancyra. The main aim of the conference was for the Tectosagi to delay the Roman attack so that they could allow their women and children to retreat across the Halys River. Their other aim was to assassinate Vulso while he was at the conference. While they were going to the conference, the Romans saw the Galatian cavalry charging at them. In the skirmish that followed, the Galatians overpowered Vulso's small cavalry escort due to their numbers but were driven back when the cavalry that had been accompanying the Roman foragers arrived and forced the Galatians to retreat.[41]
The Romans spent the next two days scouting the surrounding area and on the third day they met the Galatian army consisting of 50,000 men; Grainger is sceptical of this number. The Galatian cavalry had been deployed on the flanks, but was used as infantry. The Romans started the battle by attacking again with their light infantry. The Galatians were once again attacked by long range weapons, the Galatian center broke due to the first charge of the legions and fled to their camp. The flanks stood their grounds for longer but were eventually forced to retreat. The Romans chased them and plundered the Galatian camp[44] as the surviving Galatians fled across the river to join the women, children and the Trocmi gathered across the Halys river.[45] 8,000 Galatians were killed and an unknown number were captured.[46] The location of Mount Magaba, where this battle was fought, is thought to be Elmadağ, a locality in modern Ankara.[43]
Aftermath
Political map of Asia Minor after the Treaty of Apamea
These two crushing military defeats forced the Galatians to sue for peace. This campaign greatly enriched Vulso and his legions as the Galatians had gathered great wealth through their many conquests in Asia Minor. The Galatians sent envoys to Vulso asking for peace but because winter was approaching, he asked them to come to Ephesus.[45] Vulso remained in Asia Minor for another year. During that time he concluded the Treaty of Apamea with Antiochus and divided the lands of the Asia Minor coast between Pergamum and Rhodes.[47] When the Galatian envoys came, Vulso told them that King Eumenes II of Pergamum would give them the terms of the peace when he returned from Rome.[48] The terms given to the Galatians were to cease their raids and to stay confined within their own lands, however they were not put under Roman or allied control but were left free.[46] Envoys from cities in Asia Minor settled by Greeks came to congratulate Vulso for his victory against the Gauls.[49]
Chiomara was the wife of Orgiagon, a Galatian chief. She was captured after the war by the Romans and raped by a centurion. When he returned her to the Galatians for a ransom, she signaled to one of her tribesman, who then killed the centurion. Chiomara then gave the head of the centurion to her husband as proof of her revenge. The historian Polybius was very impressed with her and conversed with her at Sardis; the historian Plutarch also related this account in his essay titled Bravery of Women.[50]
Vulso began his return journey to Rome in 188 BC and arrived in 187 BC. He returned via Thrace, Macedonia, Thessaly and Epirus.[51] On his return journey, some of his loot was stolen by Thracian thieves,[52] and an unknown number of his men were killed, including Quintus Minucius Thermus, a commissioner sent to advise on the Treaty of Apamea.[51][53] When he returned to Rome, he received much criticism because of his unauthorized war against the Galatians.[54] However, he eventually overcame the opposition and was awarded a triumph by the Senate.[55] At the triumph, a minimum of 52 Galatian chiefs were exhibited in chains. All soldiers of the army were paid 168 sestertii (equivalent to 42 denarii)[lower-alpha 3] each from the spoils of war, officers were paid twice as much while cavaliers were paid thrice as much.[56] The loot Vulso brought to Rome was used by the Roman Senate to pay off the debts it had incurred during the Second Punic War.[1][57]
The loot taken during this campaign was so numerous that all the Roman ships on the Anatolian coast could not carry it, Athenaeus had to provide the Pergamum fleet to carry the remainder.[58] As a result of the campaign and its loot, Greco-Asiatic rituals[59] and luxury[60][61] began to be introduced to Rome.[62] Livy and other ancient historians blamed these influences for the moral decline of the Roman Republic. Livy had observed the following about the triumph and its consequences:
These were the men who first brought into Rome bronze couches, expensive bedclothes, tapestries... This was when girls playing harps and lutes began to appear at dinner parties... and when a cook began to be a valued possession.[61]
Analysis
Strategy and warfare
The Taurus Mountains in central Anatolia
The historians John D. Grainger[63] and Nels W. Førde[64] argue that most historians have accepted Livy's account of the war without critical analysis. Grainger points out that Livy had cited his account of the war in book 38 to Lucius Furius Purpureo and Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus, both of whom were political enemies of Vulso.[63] However, Livy also cited material from Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius, seen as a pro-Vulso historian.[65] Book 39 which dealt with the triumph celebrated by Vulso has been speculated to be sourced from Valerius Antias, an anti-Vulso historian.[66] Grainger also argues that Livy, in all likelihood, had overstated the numbers of the Galatian combatants. He argues that Vulso had been sent to attack the Galatians only as a front, and that the actual intent was to use the presence of Roman troops on Seleucid territories to claim those territories for Rome and the allies.[67] Grainger provides the supporting claim that Vulso had the powers to negotiate with the Galatians and all other kingdoms east of the Taurus Mountains, which he wouldn't have had without approval from the Senate.[68]
Livy had written about a combined total of 4,000 soldiers from Morzius, the prince of Paphlagonia, and king Ariarathes IV of Cappadocia being present near Ancyra. Grainger argues that these forces, allies of the Galatians and Seleucids, could have pulled the Romans into a war further into the Seleucid inner territories, where they would have difficulty defending themselves against an attack by the Seleucids and their allies. Grainger further argues that only when a peace with the Seleucids was finally concluded did Vulso move from his position near Galatia, where he could have performed a flanking movement on any Seleucid reinforcements or armies arriving from Syria.[69]
Grainger states that the Galatians had followed plans and their commanders had maintained control during both battles. He cites Livy who had observed that the Galatians had relied entirely on passive defenses against a possible siege, but had not armed themselves with long range ballistic weapons. However, their cavalry force had been very effective,[34] but they had used it erringly at Ancyra as infantry.[44] Grainger argues that the strategy of the Galatians had been to keep the Roman army in the vicinity of their mountainous strongholds till winter arrived, when they would be cut off.[44] However, he writes that the Galatians had been either incompetent at or unaware of military tactics and the weapons in use at the time. He observes that the Galatians opted for mountain warfare even though their cavalry could have been used more impactfully on open fields. He uses these facts to posit that the Galatians had given up the frequent raids that they had been known for.[70]
Logistics and finances
Livy notes that after marching from Antiochia, it took the Roman allied army three days to cover a distance of 20 Roman miles,[lower-alpha 4] a pace of 6 and 2/3 miles a day.[11] Livy states that the army had marched at the speed of 5 miles a day from Acoridos Come to Beudos. Grainger argues that this is likely to be an understatement; the army had covered the distance of 50 miles between the two cities in 4 days, it had then marched 48 miles in the subsequent three days. Grainger shows that this is a distance of 98 miles covered in 7 days, with the mean pace being 14 miles a day.[72]
The archaeologist George Ewart Bean cites William Mitchell Ramsay to retrace Vulso's route, both of them had travelled through the modern locations of the places Vulso had marched past. Ramsay had proposed that Vulso had travelled from Sinda via Comama, Pogla and Andeda to reach Cormasa. Bean posits that the route Vulso had most likely used was via modern Ürkütlü to Hacıbekâr, then going northward, crossing the Samasbeli Pass, and reaching the heights around Aziziye and Bozlar. Bean posits that Vulso would then have marched from modern Aziziye to the Lysis river valley between Kozluca and Elmacık, and then finally to Cormasa. Bean notes that this march from Ürkütlü to Cormasa took Vulso two days according to Livy, and that Vulso then marched to the territory of Sagalassus near modern day Düver and Yazıköy.[73]
Førde argues that the army had marched south towards Termessos to receive supplies from Roman ships docking at the port of Attalia (modern day Antalya), which may have been carrying materials received through the tithe levied on Roman Sicily.[74] He also argues that one of the reasons why the army had camped at Abbassus, on the border with the Galatians, was to receive supplies sent from Attalia.[75] Grainger has used details provided by Livy to calculate the total loot during the campaigns in Asia Minor. Vulso's distribution of the loot to the soldiers was estimated at 308 talents or 18.5 million denarii,[lower-alpha 5] the government's share of the loot after making these distributions was estimated at 26.3 talents of gold and 264.1 talents of silver,[lower-alpha 6] Vulso's share is unknown but is thought to be substantial.[77]
Notes
↑ One medimnoi of wheat weighed about 41 kilograms (90lb).[17]
↑ One medimnoi of wheat weighed about 41 kilograms (90lb), whereas one medimnoi of barley weighed around 32.5 kilograms (72lb).[17]
↑ One denarius had around 4.49 grams (0.158oz) of silver.[17]
↑ A Roman mile is considered equivalent to 0.92 miles (1.48km; 4,900ft; 1,620yd).[71]
↑ One denarius had around 4.49 grams (0.158oz) of silver.[17]
↑ A talent is estimated to weigh around 22.42 kilograms (49.4lb).[76]
↑ Foss, C.; Mitchell, S. (2017-10-27). "Lysis (river): a Pleiades place resource". Pleiades: a gazetteer of past places. R. Talbert, Sean Gillies, Tom Elliott. Retrieved 2024-06-27.
Hannibal was a Carthaginian general and statesman who commanded the forces of Carthage in their battle against the Roman Republic during the Second Punic War.
The 2nd century BC started the first day of 200 BC and ended the last day of 101 BC. It is considered part of the Classical era, although depending on the region being studied, other terms may be more suitable. It is also considered to be the end of the Axial Age. In the context of the Eastern Mediterranean, it is the mid-point of the Hellenistic period.
This article concerns the period 219 BC – 210 BC.
The Battle of Cynoscephalae was an encounter battle fought in Thessaly in 197 BC between the Roman army, led by Titus Quinctius Flamininus, and the Antigonid dynasty of Macedon, led by Philip V, during the Second Macedonian War. It was a decisive Roman victory and marked the end of the conflict.
Ptolemy VI Philometor was a Greek king of Ptolemaic Egypt who reigned from 180 to 164 BC and from 163 to 145 BC. He is often considered the last ruler of ancient Egypt when that state was still a major power.
Antiochus IV Epiphanes was a Greek Hellenistic king who ruled the Seleucid Empire from 175 BC until his death in 164 BC. He was a son of King Antiochus III the Great. Originally named Mithradates, he assumed the name Antiochus after he ascended the throne. Notable events during Antiochus's reign include his near-conquest of Ptolemaic Egypt, his persecution of the Jews of Judea and Samaria, and the rebellion of the Jewish Maccabees.
Philip V was king of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon from 221 to 179 BC. Philip's reign was principally marked by the Social War in Greece and a struggle with the emerging power of the Roman Republic. He would lead Macedon against Rome in the First and Second Macedonian Wars. While he lost the latter, Philip later allied with Rome against Antiochus III in the Roman-Seleucid War. He died in 179 BC from illness after efforts to recover the military and economic condition of Macedonia and passed the throne onto his elder son, Perseus of Macedon.
The Battle of Magnesia took place in either December 190 or January 189 BC. It was fought as part of the Roman–Seleucid War, pitting forces of the Roman Republic led by the consul Lucius Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus and the allied Kingdom of Pergamon under Eumenes II against a Seleucid army of Antiochus III the Great. The two armies initially camped northeast of Magnesia ad Sipylum in Asia Minor, attempting to provoke each other into a battle on favorable terrain for several days.
The Kingdom of Pergamon, Pergamene Kingdom, or Attalid kingdom was a Greek state during the Hellenistic period that ruled much of the Western part of Asia Minor from its capital city of Pergamon. It was ruled by the Attalid dynasty.
In classical antiquity, the Hellenistic period covers the time in Mediterranean history after Classical Greece, between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the death of Cleopatra VII in 30 BC, which was followed by the ascendancy of the Roman Empire, as signified by the Battle of Actium in 31 BC and the Roman conquest of Ptolemaic Egypt the following year, which eliminated the last major Hellenistic kingdom. Its name stems from the Ancient Greek word Hellas, which was gradually recognized as the name for Greece, from which the early modern 19th century historiographical term Hellenistic was derived. The term "Hellenistic" is to be distinguished from "Hellenic" in that the latter refers to Greece itself, while the former encompasses all the ancient territories of the period which had come under significant Greek influence, in particular the Hellenized Middle East, after the conquests of Alexander the Great.
Attalus II Philadelphus was a ruler of the Attalid kingdom of Pergamon and the founder of the city of Attalia.
Gaius Claudius Nero was a Roman general active during the Second Punic War against the invading Carthaginian force, led by Hannibal Barca. During a military career that began as legate in 214 BC, he was praetor in 212 BC, propraetor in 211 BC during the siege of Capua, before being sent to Spain that same year. He became consul in 207 BC.
Attalus I, surnamed Soter, was the ruler of the Greek polis of Pergamon and the larger Pergamene Kingdom from 241 BC to 197 BC. He was the adopted son of King Eumenes I, whom he succeeded, and was the first of the Attalid dynasty to assume the title of king, sometime around 240 to 235 BC. He was the son of Attalus and his wife Antiochis.
The Cretan War was fought by King Philip V of Macedon, the Aetolian League, many Cretan cities and Spartan pirates against the forces of Rhodes and later Attalus I of Pergamum, Byzantium, Cyzicus, Athens, and Knossos.
The Roman–Seleucid war (192–188 BC), also called the Aetolian war, Antiochene war, Syrian war, and Syrian-Aetolian war was a military conflict between two coalitions, one led by the Roman Republic and the other led by the Seleucid king Antiochus III. The fighting took place in modern-day southern Greece, the Aegean Sea, and Asia Minor.
The Battle of Mount Olympus was fought in 189 BC between the Galatian Gauls of Asia Minor and an alliance consisting of the Roman Republic and Pergamum. The battle ended in a crushing allied victory. Livy is the main source for this battle, and his description can be found in book 38, chapters 17–23.
The Seleucid army was the army of the Seleucid Empire, one of the numerous Hellenistic states that emerged after the death of Alexander the Great.
The Antigonid Macedonian army was the army that evolved from the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia in the period when it was ruled by the Antigonid dynasty from 276 BC to 168 BC. It was seen as one of the principal Hellenistic fighting forces until its ultimate defeat at Roman hands at the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC. However, there was a brief resurgence in 150-148 during the revolt of Andriscus, a supposed heir to Perseus.
The Galatians were a Celtic people dwelling in Galatia, a region of central Anatolia in modern-day Turkey surrounding Ankara during the Hellenistic period. They spoke the Galatian language, which was closely related to Gaulish, a contemporary Celtic language spoken in Gaul.
The Battle of Protopachium was fought in 89 BC at the start of the First Mithridatic War, between the Roman Republic and the Pontic Empire. The battle ended in a Roman defeat and their expulsion from Asia Minor.
Strabo (2024). Frankopan, Peter (ed.). Strabo's Geography: A Translation for the Modern World. Translated by Pothecary, Sarah. Princeton University Press. ISBN9780691243139.
Secondary sources
Books
Førde, Nels W. (1979). "Cn. Manlius Vulso and the Middle Bloc during the Second Century BC". In Powell Jr., Marvin A.; Sack, Ronald H. (eds.). Studies in honor of Tom B. Jones. Alten Orient und Alten Testament no. 203. Neukirchener Verlag. pp.231–244. ISBN9783788705602.
Grainger, John D. (2020). The Galatians: Celtic Invaders of Greece and Asia Minor. Pen & Sword Books. ISBN9781526770714.
Pelikan Pittenger, Miriam R. (2009). Contested Triumphs: Politics, Pageantry, and Performance in Livy’s Republican Rome. University of California Press. ISBN9780520942776.
Rankin, David (2002). Celts and the Classical World. Taylor & Francis. ISBN9781134747214.
Rathbone, Dominic (2014). "Mediterranean Grain Prices c. 300 to 31 BC: the Impact of Rome". In Baker, Heather D.; Jursa, Michael (eds.). Documentary Sources in Ancient Near Eastern and Greco-Roman Economic History: Methodology and Practice. Oxbow Books. pp.289–312. ISBN9781782976516.
von Reden, Sitta (2014). "Wheat Prices in Ptolemaic Egypt". In Baker, Heather D.; Jursa, Michael (eds.). Documentary Sources in Ancient Near Eastern and Greco-Roman Economic History: Methodology and Practice. Oxbow Books. pp.260–288. ISBN9781782976516.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply. Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.
