Geospatial intelligence

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Graphical depiction of the definition of Geospatial Intelligence (GEOINT) NGA-GEOINT.png
Graphical depiction of the definition of Geospatial Intelligence (GEOINT)

In the United States, geospatial intelligence (GEOINT) is intelligence about the human activity on Earth derived from the exploitation and analysis of imagery, signals, or signatures with geospatial information. GEOINT describes, assesses, and visually depicts physical features and geographically referenced activities on the Earth. GEOINT, as defined in US Code, consists of imagery, imagery intelligence (IMINT) and geospatial information. [1]

Contents

GEOINT knowledge and related tradecraft is no longer confined to the U.S. government, or even the world's leading military powers. Additionally, countries such as India are holding GEOINT-specific conferences. While other countries may define geospatial intelligence somewhat differently than does the U.S., the use of GEOINT data and services is the same. [2]

Geospatial Intelligence can also be referred to as "Location Intelligence". Although GEOINT is inclusive, HYDROSPATIAL is preferably used to refer and to focus on the aquatic and coastal zones spatial elements.

Amplified definition

GEOINT encompasses all aspects of imagery (including capabilities formerly referred to as Advanced Geospatial Intelligence and imagery-derived Measurement and Signature Intelligence (MASINT) and geospatial information and services (GIS); formerly referred to as mapping, charting, and geodesy). It includes, but is not limited to, data ranging from the ultraviolet through the microwave portions of the electromagnetic spectrum, as well as information derived from the analysis of literal imagery; geospatial data; georeferenced social media; and information technically derived from the processing, exploitation, literal, and non-literal analysis of spectral, spatial, temporal, radiometric, phase history, polarimetric data, fused products (products created out of two or more data sources), and the ancillary data needed for data processing and exploitation, and signature information (to include development, validation, simulation, data archival, and dissemination). These types of data can be collected on stationary and moving targets by electro-optical (to include IR, MWIR, SWIR TIR, Spectral, MSI, HSI, HD), SAR (to include MTI), related sensor programs (both active and passive) and non-technical means (to include geospatial information acquired by personnel in the field). [3]

Here Geospatial Intelligence, or the frequently used term GEOINT, is an intelligence discipline comprising the exploitation and analysis of geospatial data and information to describe, assess, and visually depict physical features (both natural and constructed) and geographically reference activities on the Earth. Geospatial Intelligence data sources include imagery and mapping data, whether collected by commercial satellite, government satellite, aircraft (such as Unmanned Aerial Vehicles [UAV] or reconnaissance aircraft), or by other means, such as maps and commercial databases, census information, GPS waypoints, utility schematics, or any discrete data that have locations on earth. There is growing recognition that human geography, [4] socio-cultural intelligence, [5] and other aspects of the human domain [6] are a critical domain of GEOINT data due to the now pervasive geo-referencing of demographic, ethnographic, and political stability data. There is an emerging recognition that "this legal definition paints with a broad brushstroke an idea of the width and depth of GEOINT" [7] and "GEOINT must evolve even further to integrate forms of intelligence and information beyond the traditional sources of geospatial information and imagery, and must move from an emphasis on data and analysis to an emphasis on knowledge." [8]

Principles

Key terms, such as GEOINT and NGA, were developed for public policy purposes. The NIMA Act of 1996 establishing the National Imagery and Mapping Agency. This resulted in the integration of multiple sources of information, intelligence and trade crafts into NIMA, which subsequently became NGA. Then Director James Clapper (2001–2006) designated this discipline as GEOINT, in the ilk of IMINT, SIGINT, MASINT, HUMINT.[ citation needed ]

The question as to how GEOINT is different from other geospatial analytic activities is occasionally asked. Bacastow [9] [10] suggested the following First Principles as markers that define the professional domain in terms of uniqueness and value. These are:

Geospatial data, information, and knowledge

The definitions and usage of the terms geospatial data, geospatial information, and geospatial knowledge are not consistent or unambiguous, further exacerbating the situation. Geospatial data can (usually) be applied to the output of a collector or collection system before it is processed, i.e., data that was sensed. Geospatial Information is geospatial data that has been processed or had value added to it by a human or machine process. Geospatial knowledge is a structuring of geospatial information, accompanied by an interpretation or analysis. The terms Data, Information, Knowledge and Wisdom (DIKW pyramid) are difficult to define, but cannot be used interchangeably.

Generally, geospatial intelligence can be more readily defined as, data, information, and knowledge gathered about entities that can be referenced to a particular location on, above, or below the Earth's surface. The intelligence gathering method can include imagery, signals, measurements and signatures, and human sources, i.e., IMINT, SIGINT, MASINT, and HUMINT, as long as a geo-location can be associated with the intelligence.

Relationship to other "INT"

Thus, rather than being a peer to the other "INT", geospatial intelligence might better be viewed as the unifying structure of the Earth's natural and constructed features (including elevations and depths)—whether as individual layers in a GIS or as composited into a map or chart, imagery representations of the Earth, AND, the presentation of the existence of data, information, and knowledge derived from analysis of IMINT, SIGINT, MASINT, HUMINT, and other intelligence sources and disciplines.

Other factors

It has been suggested that GEOINT is just a new term used to identify a broad range of outputs from intelligence organizations that use a variety of existing spatial skills and disciplines including photogrammetry, cartography, imagery analysis, remote sensing, and terrain analysis. However, GEOINT is more than the sum of these parts. Spatial thinking as applied in Geospatial Intelligence can synthesize any intelligence or other data that can be conceptualized in a geographic spatial context. Geospatial Intelligence can be derived entirely independent of any satellite or aerial imagery and can be clearly differentiated from IMINT (imagery intelligence). Confusion and dissension is caused by Title 10 U.S. Code §467's separation of "imagery" or "satellite information" from "geospatial information" as imagery is generally considered just one of the forms which geospatial information might take or be derived from.

It has also been suggested[ by whom? ] that geospatial intelligence can be described as a product occurring at the point of delivery, i.e., by the amount of analysis which occurs to resolve particular problems, not by the type of data used. For example, a database containing a list of measurements of bridges obtained from imagery is 'information' while the development of an output using analysis to determine those bridges that are able to be utilized for specific purposes could be termed 'intelligence'. Similarly, the simple measurement of beach profiles is a classical geographic information-gathering activity, while the process of selecting a beach that matches a certain profile for a specific purpose is an analytical activity, and the output could be termed an intelligence product. In this form it is considered to be generally used by agencies requiring definitions of their outputs for descriptive and capability development purposes (or, more cynically, as a marketing strategy).

Geospatial intelligence analysis has been light-heartedly defined as "seeing what everybody has seen and thinking what nobody has thought" or as "anticipating a target's mental map." [11] However, these perspectives affirm that creating geospatial knowledge is an effortful cognitive process the analyst undertakes; it is an intellectual endeavor that arrives at a conclusion through reasoning. Geospatial reasoning creates the objective connection between a geospatial problem representation and geospatial evidence. Here one set of activities, information foraging, focuses around finding information while another set of activities, sensemaking, focuses on giving meaning to the information. The activities of foraging and sensemaking in geospatial analysis have been incorporated in the Structured Geospatial Analytic Method. [12]

De facto definition

A de facto definition of geospatial intelligence, which is more reflective of the broad international nature of the discipline, is vastly different from the de jure definition expressed in U.S. Code. This de facto definition is:

Geospatial Intelligence is a field of knowledge, a process, and a profession. As knowledge, it is information integrated in a coherent space-time context that supports descriptions, explanations, or forecasts of human activities with which decision makers take action. As a process, it is the means by which data and information are collected, manipulated, geospatially reasoned, and disseminated to decision-makers. The geospatial intelligence profession establishes the scope of activities, interdisciplinary associations, competencies, and standards in academe, government, and the private sectors. [13]

This has been suggested as an operational definition of Geospatial Intelligence which might use the moniker of GeoIntel so as to distinguish it from the more restrictive definition offered in U.S. Code Title 10, §467.

GEOINT agencies

National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency building at the Fort Belvoir (North Area) in Springfield, Virginia National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency.jpg
National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency building at the Fort Belvoir (North Area) in Springfield, Virginia

US Service Fusion/GEOINT Centers

GEOINT units

See also

Related Research Articles

Foreign instrumentation signals intelligence, FISINT (Foreign Instrumentation Signature INTelligence) is intelligence from the interception of foreign electromagnetic emissions associated with the testing and operational deployment of foreign aerospace, surface, and subsurface systems. Since it deals with signals that have communicational content, it is a subset of Communications Intelligence (COMINT), which, in turn, is a subset of SIGINT. Unlike general COMINT signals, the content of FISINT signals is not in regular human language, but rather in machine to machine (instrumentation) language or in a combination of regular human language and instrumentation language. FISINT is also considered as a subset of MASINT (measurement and signature intelligence).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human intelligence (intelligence gathering)</span> Intelligence gathered by means interpersonal contact

Human intelligence is intelligence-gathering by means of human sources and interpersonal communication. It is distinct from more technical intelligence-gathering disciplines, such as signals intelligence (SIGINT), imagery intelligence (IMINT), and measurement and signature intelligence (MASINT). HUMINT can be conducted in a variety of ways, including via espionage, reconnaissance, interrogation, witness interviews, or torture. Although associated with military and intelligence agencies, HUMINT can also apply in various civilian sectors such as law enforcement.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Imagery intelligence</span> Intelligence gathered by means of imagery

Imagery intelligence (IMINT), pronounced as either as Im-Int or I-Mint, is an intelligence gathering discipline wherein imagery is analyzed to identify information of intelligence value. Imagery used for defense intelligence purposes is generally collected via satellite imagery or aerial photography.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency</span> US DoD division

The National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA) is a combat support agency within the United States Department of Defense whose primary mission is collecting, analyzing, and distributing geospatial intelligence (GEOINT) in support of national security. Initially known as the National Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA) from 1996 to 2003, it is a member of the United States Intelligence Community.

Measurement and signature intelligence (MASINT) is a technical branch of intelligence gathering, which serves to detect, track, identify or describe the distinctive characteristics (signatures) of fixed or dynamic target sources. This often includes radar intelligence, acoustic intelligence, nuclear intelligence, and chemical and biological intelligence. MASINT is defined as scientific and technical intelligence derived from the analysis of data obtained from sensing instruments for the purpose of identifying any distinctive features associated with the source, emitter or sender, to facilitate the latter's measurement and identification.

An intelligence officer is a person employed by an organization to collect, compile or analyze information which is of use to that organization. The word of officer is a working title, not a rank, used in the same way a "police officer" can also be a sergeant, or in the military, in which non-commissioned personnel may serve as intelligence officers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Intelligence, surveillance, target acquisition, and reconnaissance</span> Military doctrinal concept

ISTAR stands for intelligence, surveillance, target acquisition, and reconnaissance. In its macroscopic sense, ISTAR is a practice that links several battlefield functions together to assist a combat force in employing its sensors and managing the information they gather.

Radiofrequency MASINT is one of the six major disciplines generally accepted to make up the field of Measurement and Signature Intelligence (MASINT), with due regard that the MASINT subdisciplines may overlap, and MASINT, in turn, is complementary to more traditional intelligence collection and analysis disciplines such as SIGINT and IMINT. MASINT encompasses intelligence gathering activities that bring together disparate elements that do not fit within the definitions of Signals Intelligence (SIGINT), Imagery Intelligence (IMINT), or Human Intelligence (HUMINT).

Materials MASINT is one of the six major disciplines generally accepted to make up the field of Measurement and Signature Intelligence (MASINT), with due regard that the MASINT subdisciplines may overlap, and MASINT, in turn, is complementary to more traditional intelligence collection and analysis disciplines such as SIGINT and IMINT. MASINT encompasses intelligence gathering activities that bring together disparate elements that do not fit within the definitions of Signals Intelligence (SIGINT), Imagery Intelligence (IMINT), or Human Intelligence (HUMINT).

Intelligence collection management is the process of managing and organizing the collection of intelligence from various sources. The collection department of an intelligence organization may attempt basic validation of what it collects, but is not supposed to analyze its significance. There is debate in U.S. intelligence community on the difference between validation and analysis, where the National Security Agency may try to interpret information when such interpretation is the job of another agency.

Intelligence cycle management refers to the overall activity of guiding the intelligence cycle, which is a set of processes used to provide decision-useful information (intelligence) to leaders. The cycle consists of several processes, including planning and direction, collection, processing and exploitation, analysis and production, and dissemination and integration. The related field of counterintelligence is tasked with impeding the intelligence efforts of others. Intelligence organizations are not infallible but, when properly managed and tasked, can be among the most valuable tools of management and government.

Failure in the intelligence cycle or intelligence failure, is the outcome of the inadequacies within the intelligence cycle. The intelligence cycle itself consists of six steps that are constantly in motion: requirements, collection, processing and exploitation, analysis and production, dissemination and consumption, and feedback.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Robert Cardillo</span> American intelligence official

Robert Cardillo is a Distinguished Fellow at Georgetown University’s Center for Security and Emerging Technology. Prior to this appointment, he was the sixth Director of the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency and was sworn in October 3, 2014. He was previously selected by Director of National Intelligence James Clapper to serve as the first Deputy Director of National Intelligence for Intelligence Integration in September 2010. Clapper said in a statement that the position would "elevate information sharing and collaboration" between those who collect intelligence and those who analyze it. Cardillo previously served as deputy director of the Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA). Prior to that, he served as the deputy director for Analysis, DIA, and Director, Analysis and Production, National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA).

Geographic information systems (GIS) play a constantly evolving role in geospatial intelligence (GEOINT) and United States national security. These technologies allow a user to efficiently manage, analyze, and produce geospatial data, to combine GEOINT with other forms of intelligence collection, and to perform highly developed analysis and visual production of geospatial data. Therefore, GIS produces up-to-date and more reliable GEOINT to reduce uncertainty for a decisionmaker. Since GIS programs are Web-enabled, a user can constantly work with a decision maker to solve their GEOINT and national security related problems from anywhere in the world. There are many types of GIS software used in GEOINT and national security, such as Google Earth, ERDAS IMAGINE, GeoNetwork opensource, and Esri ArcGIS.

Market intelligence (MARKINT) is an intelligence-gathering discipline that focuses on intelligence gathered from the global capital markets. It is analogous to other "INTs" in the IC's domain, such as SIGINT, ELINT, MASINT, IMINT, and HUMINT. It is complementary to but different from FININT, in which information about the financial affairs of entities of interest is gathered.

The Defence Intelligence Fusion Centre (DIFC) is based at RAF Wyton in Cambridgeshire. Largely created from the staff of the National Imagery Exploitation Centre and then known for several years as the Defence Geospatial Intelligence Fusion Centre, it can trace its history back to clandestine reconnaissance operations at the beginning of the Second World War by Sydney Cotton on behalf of MI6 and then MI4, and the formation of the Allied Central Interpretation Unit at RAF Medmenham.

CyberHumint refers to the set of skills used by hackers, within Cyberspace, in order to obtain private information while attacking the human factor, using various psychological deceptions. CyberHumint includes the use of traditional human espionage methodologies, such as agent recruitment, information gathering through deception, traditionally known as Humint, combined with deception technologies known as Social engineering.

All-source intelligence is a term used to describe intelligence organizations, intelligence analysts, or intelligence products that are based on all available sources of intelligence collection information.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Geospatial Intelligence Battalion</span> Military unit

The United States Army Geospatial Intelligence Battalion, previously known as the 3rd Military Intelligence Center, is a military intelligence battalion specializing in the production and exploitation of geospatial intelligence (GEOINT), and the only operational military command at the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA). Co-located within the NGA headquarters (NGA-East) on Fort Belvoir in Springfield, Virginia, the unit produces and analyzes geospatial intelligence products for ground combat forces in close collaboration with its host agency and other members of the U.S. Intelligence Community. Though colocated with NGA, the AGB differs from NGA's own Support Teams in that it receives tasking from the Army.

References

  1. ↑ "10 U.S.C. § 467 : US Code - Section 467: Definitions".
  2. ↑ "United States Geospatial Intelligence Foundation (USGIF), 2016 State of GEOINT Report. Feb 2016, p. 16" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-01-27. Retrieved 2016-08-21.
  3. ↑ Memorandum for Principal Director of National Intelligence, Deputy Director of National Intelligence for Collection, from James R. Clapper, Lieutenant General, USAF (Ret.), Director [NGA] 17 October 2005, gwg.nga.mil Archived 2021-03-03 at the Wayback Machine
  4. ↑ Murdock, Darryl; Tomes, Robert; Tucker, Chris, eds. (16 September 2014). "Human Geography: Socio-Cultural Dynamics and Challenges to Global Security". USGIF – via Amazon.
  5. ↑ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-01-30. Retrieved 2015-09-22.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  6. ↑ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-05-28. Retrieved 2015-09-22.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  7. ↑ Masback, Keith (2010) GIF 2010 Volume: 8 Issue: 6 (September)
  8. ↑ Priorities for GEOINT Research at the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency, The National Academies Press, 2006, P. 9
  9. ↑ "Pathfinder Archive".
  10. ↑ "Defining 'First Principles' of Geospatial Intelligence « Earth Imaging Journal: Remote Sensing, Satellite Images, Satellite Imagery".
  11. ↑ Bacastow, Todd S. (2010). The Learner's Guide to Geospatial Analysis. Dutton Education Institute, Penn State University.
  12. ↑ Bridges, Donna M. (2010). A Structured Geospatial Analytic Method and Pedagogy for the Intelligence Community. International Association of Law Enforcement Intelligence Analysts (IALEIA) Journal. 19 (1).
  13. ↑ Bacastow, T.S. and Bellafiore, D.J. (2009). Redefining geospatial intelligence. American Intelligence Journal. Pp 38-40
  14. ↑ "Events.oesr.qld.gov.au" (PDF).
  15. ↑ SMDC.army.mil Archived 2011-07-28 at the Wayback Machine
  16. ↑ I-mef.usmc.mil Archived 2009-03-29 at the Wayback Machine
  17. ↑ Iimefpublic.usmc.mil Archived 2008-12-07 at the Wayback Machine
  18. ↑ "Iiimef.usmc.mil". Archived from the original on 2009-03-28.

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