History of poetry

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The Deluge tablet, carved in stone, of the Gilgamesh epic in Akkadian, circa 2nd millennium BC. GilgameshTablet.jpg
The Deluge tablet, carved in stone, of the Gilgamesh epic in Akkadian, circa 2nd millennium BC.

Poetry as an oral art form likely predates written text. [1] The earliest poetry is believed to have been recited or sung, employed as a way of remembering oral history, genealogy, and law. Poetry is often closely related to musical traditions, and the earliest poetry exists in the form of hymns (such as Hymn to the Death of Tammuz), and other types of song such as chants. As such, poetry is often a verbal art. Many of the poems surviving from the ancient world are recorded prayers, or stories about religious subject matter, but they also include historical accounts, instructions for everyday activities, love songs, [2] and fiction.

Contents

Many scholars, particularly those researching the Homeric tradition and the oral epics of the Balkans, suggest that early writing shows clear traces of older oral traditions, including the use of repeated phrases as building blocks in larger poetic units. A rhythmic and repetitious form would make a long story easier to remember and retell, before writing was available as a reminder. Thus, to aid memorization and oral transmission, surviving works from prehistoric and ancient societies appear to have been first composed in a poetic form – from the Vedas (1500–1000 BCE) to the Odyssey (800–675 BCE). [a] Poetry appears among the earliest records of most literate cultures, with poetic fragments found on early monoliths, runestones, and stelae.

Early poetry

Some scholars believe that the art of poetry may predate literacy, and developed from folk epics and other oral genres. [5] [6] Others, however, suggest that poetry did not necessarily predate writing. [7]

The oldest surviving speculative fiction poem is the Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor , [8] [ better source needed ] written in Hieratic and ascribed a date around 2500 BCE. The oldest surviving epic poem, the Epic of Gilgamesh , dates from the 3rd millennium BCE in Sumer (in Mesopotamia, present-day Iraq), and was written in cuneiform script on clay tablets and, later, on papyrus. [9] The Istanbul tablet#2461, dating to c. 2000 BCE, describes an annual rite in which the king symbolically married and mated with the goddess Inanna to ensure fertility and prosperity; some have labelled it the world's oldest love poem. [10] [11] An example of Egyptian epic poetry is The Story of Sinuhe (c. 1800 BCE). [12]

Other ancient epics includes the Greek Iliad and the Odyssey ; the Persian Avestan books (the Yasna ); the Roman national epic, Virgil's Aeneid (written between 29 and 19 BCE); and the Indian epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata . Epic poetry appears to have been composed in poetic form as an aid to memorization and oral transmission in ancient societies. [7] [13]

Other forms of poetry, including such ancient collections of religious hymns as the Indian Sanskrit-language Rigveda , the Avestan Gathas, the Hurrian songs , and the Hebrew Psalms , possibly developed directly from folk songs. The earliest entries in the oldest extant collection of Chinese poetry, the Classic of Poetry (Shijing), were initially lyrics. [14] The Shijing, with its collection of poems and folk songs, was heavily valued by the philosopher Confucius and is considered to be one of the official Confucian classics. His remarks on the subject have become an invaluable source in ancient music theory. [15]

The efforts of ancient thinkers to determine what makes poetry distinctive as a form, and what distinguishes good poetry from bad, resulted in "poetics"—the study of the aesthetics of poetry. [16] Some ancient societies, such as China's through the Shijing, developed canons of poetic works that had ritual as well as aesthetic importance. [17] More recently, thinkers have struggled to find a definition that could encompass formal differences as great as those between Chaucer's Canterbury Tales and Matsuo Bashō's Oku no Hosomichi , as well as differences in content spanning Tanakh religious poetry, love poetry, and rap. [18]

Until recently, the earliest examples of stressed poetry had been thought to be works composed by Romanos the Melodist (fl. 6th century CE). However, Tim Whitmarsh writes that an inscribed Greek poem predated Romanos' stressed poetry. [19] [20] [21]

Ancient African poetry

In Africa, poetry has a history dating back to prehistorical times with the creation of hunting poetry, and panegyric and elegiac court poetry were developed extensively throughout the history of the empires of the Nile, Niger, and Volta river valleys. [22] Some of the earliest written poetry in Africa can be found among the Pyramid Texts written during the 25th century BCE, while the Epic of Sundiata is one of the most well-known examples of griot court poetry. In African cultures, performance poetry is traditionally a part of theatrics, which was present in all aspects of pre-colonial African life [23] and whose theatrical ceremonies had many different functions, including political, educative, spiritual and entertainment.

Poetics were an element of theatrical performances of local oral artists, linguists and historians, accompanied by local instruments of the people such as the kora, the xalam, the mbira and the djembe drum. Drumming for accompaniment is not to be confused with performances of the talking drum, which is a literature of its own, since it is a distinct method of communication that depends on conveying meaning through non-musical grammatical, tonal and rhythmic rules imitating speech. [22] (pp 467–484) [24] Although, these performances could be included in those of griots.

Classical and early modern Western traditions

Calliope, the muse of heroic poetry Calliope Pio-Clementino Inv312.jpg
Calliope, the muse of heroic poetry

Classical thinkers employed classification as a way to define and assess the quality of poetry. In book III of the Republic, Plato defined poetry as a narrative genre separated into three types: the "simple," the "imitative," or some mix of the two. He also famously, in book X, condemned poetry as evil, being only capable of creating deceptive and ineffectual copies of real-world corollaries. [25]

In his Poetics, Aristotle taxonomized ancient Greek drama [26] (which he called "poetry") into three subcategories: epic, comic, and tragic. Aristotle developed rules to distinguish the highest-quality poetry of each genre, based on the underlying purposes of that genre. [27] [ full citation needed ] Later aestheticians identified three major genres: Epic poetry, lyric poetry, and dramatic poetry (treating comedy and tragedy as subgenres of dramatic poetry). Aristotle's work was influential throughout the Middle East during the Islamic Golden Age, [b] as well as in Europe during the Renaissance. [30]

Like Aristotle, [31] subsequent poets and aestheticians often distinguished poetry from, and defined it in opposition to, prose, which was generally understood as writing with a proclivity to logical explication and global trade.[ citation needed ] In addition to a boom in translation, during the Romantic period numerous ancient works were rediscovered.[ citation needed ]

History and development of Chinese poetry

The character which means "poetry", in the ancient Chinese Great Seal script style. The modern character is Shi /Shi (shi). Shi -bigseal.svg
The character which means "poetry", in the ancient Chinese Great Seal script style. The modern character is 詩/诗 (shī).

The Classic of Poetry, often known by its original name of the Odes or Poetry is the earliest existing collection of Chinese poems and songs. This poetry collection comprises 305 poems and songs dating from the 11th to the 7th century BCE. The stylistic development of Classical Chinese poetry consists of both literary and oral cultural processes, which are conventionally assigned to certain standard periods or eras, corresponding with Chinese Dynastic Eras, the traditional chronological process for Chinese historical events.

The poems preserved in written form constitute the poetic literature. Furthermore, there is or were parallel traditions of oral and traditional poetry also known as popular or folk poems or ballads. Some of these poems seem to have been preserved in written form. Generally, the folk type of poems they are anonymous, and may show signs of having been edited or polished in the process of fixing them in written characters. Besides the Classic of Poetry, or Shijing , another early text is the Songs of the South (or, Chuci ), although some individual pieces or fragments survive in other forms, for example embedded in classical histories or other literature.

Medieval poetry

Poetry took numerous forms in medieval Europe, for example, lyric and epic poetry. The troubadours, trouvères, and the minnesänger are known for composing their lyric poetry about courtly love usually accompanied by an instrument. [32]

Old English poetry

Old English religious poetry includes the poem Christ by Cynewulf and the poem The Dream of the Rood , preserved in both manuscript form and on the Ruthwell Cross. We do have some secular poetry; in fact a great deal of medieval literature was written in verse, including the Old English epic Beowulf . Scholars are fairly sure, based on a few fragments and on references in historic texts, that much lost secular poetry was set to music, and was spread by traveling minstrels, or bards, across Europe. Thus, the few poems written eventually became ballads or lays, and never made it to being recited without song or other music.

Medieval Latin poetry

In medieval Latin, while verse in the old quantitative meters continued to be written, a new more popular form called the sequence arose, which was based on accentual metres in which metrical feet were based on stressed syllables rather than vowel length. These metres were associated with Christian hymnody.

However, much secular poetry was also written in Latin. Some poems and songs, like the Gambler's Mass (officio lusorum) from the Carmina Burana, were parodies of Christian hymns, while others were student melodies: folksongs, love songs and drinking ballads. The famous commercium song Gaudeamus igitur is one example. There are also a few narrative poems of the period, such as the unfinished epic Ruodlieb, which tells us the story of a knight's adventures.

Lyric poetry

Lyric poetry grew to be popular in around the 19th century, with the addition of radio as they could broadcast to the world the earliest 'songs'. Lyric poetry is very similar to songs / song lyrics. They could have as many stanzas as they wanted, which was different to different forms of poetry at the time. There were no real regulations to this new form of poetry, which was invented by Sir Robert Cite in 1789. This form of poetry is known for being the quickest growing type of the past millennium. To this day, lyric poetry is the most used and important of poetries, and is used throughout the world.

Modern developments

The development of modern poetry is generally seen as having started at the beginning of the 20th century and extends into the 21st century. Among its major American practitioners who write in English are T.S. Eliot, Robert Frost, Wallace Stevens, Maya Angelou, June Jordan, Allen Ginsberg, and Nobel laureate Louise Glück. Among the modern epic poets are Ezra Pound, H.D., Derek Walcott, and Giannina Braschi. Contemporary poets Joy Harjo, Kevin Young (poet), and Natasha Trethewey write poetry in the lyric form.

Manuscript of the Rig Veda, Sanskrit verse composed in the 2nd millennium BC. Rigveda MS2097.jpg
Manuscript of the Rig Veda, Sanskrit verse composed in the 2nd millennium BC.

Footnotes

  1. ↑ For a recent summary discussion, see Ahl (1996). [3] Others suggest that poetry did not necessarily predate writing. See, for example, Goody (1987). [4]
  2. ↑ Ibn Rushd (Averroes) wrote a commentary on Aristotle's Poetics, replacing the original examples with passages from Arabic poets. [28] [29]

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Poetry is a form of literary art that uses aesthetic and often rhythmic qualities of language to evoke meanings in addition to, or in place of, literal or surface-level meanings. Any particular instance of poetry is called a poem and is written by a poet. Poets use a variety of techniques called poetic devices, such as assonance, alliteration, euphony and cacophony, onomatopoeia, rhythm, and sound symbolism, to produce musical or other artistic effects. Most written poems are formatted in verse: a series or stack of lines on a page, which follow a rhythmic or other deliberate structure. For this reason, verse has also become a synonym for poetry.

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<i>Classic of Poetry</i> Collection of ancient Chinese poetry

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References

  1. ↑ Beissinger, M.H. (2012). "Oral poetry". Princeton, NJ: The Princeton encyclopedia of poetry and poetics. pp. 978–981.
  2. ↑ Arsu, Sebnem (14 February 2006). "The oldest line in the world". The New York Times .
  3. ↑ Ahl, Frederick (1996). The Odyssey Re-Formed.
  4. ↑ Goody, Jack (1987). The Interface Between the Written and the Oral.
  5. ↑ Höivik, Susan; Luger, Kurt (3 June 2009). "Folk Media for Biodiversity Conservation: A Pilot Project from the Himalaya-Hindu Kush". International Communication Gazette. 71 (4): 321–346. doi:10.1177/1748048509102184. S2CID   143947520.
  6. ↑ Goody, Jack (1987). The Interface Between the Written and the Oral . Cambridge University Press. p.  78. ISBN   978-0-521-33794-6. [...] poetry, tales, recitations of various kinds existed long before writing was introduced and these oral forms continued in modified 'oral' forms, even after the establishment of a written literature.
  7. 1 2 Goody, Jack (1987). The Interface Between the Written and the Oral . Cambridge University Press. p.  98. ISBN   978-0-521-33794-6.
  8. ↑ Daniel Seldon UCSC professor of AfroAsiatic studies[ citation needed ]
  9. ↑ The Epic of Gilgamesh. Translated by Sanders, N. K. (Revised ed.). Penguin Books. 1972. pp. 7–8.
  10. ↑ Mark, Joshua J. (13 August 2014). "The World's Oldest Love Poem". '[...] What I held in my hand was one of the oldest love songs written down by the hand of man [...].'
  11. ↑ Arsu, Şebnem (14 February 2006). "Oldest Line in the World". The New York Times. Retrieved 1 May 2015. A small tablet in a special display this month in the Istanbul Museum of the Ancient Orient is thought to be the oldest love poem ever found, the words of a lover from more than 4,000 years ago.
  12. ↑ Chyla, Julia; Rosińska-Balik, Karolina; Debowska-Ludwin, Joanna (2017). Current Research in Egyptology 17. Oxbow Books. pp. 159–161. ISBN   978-1-78570-603-5.
  13. ↑ Ahl, Frederick; Roisman, Hanna M. (1996). The Odyssey Re-Formed . Cornell University Press. pp.  1–26. ISBN   978-0-8014-8335-6..
  14. ↑ Ebrey, Patricia (1993). Chinese Civilisation: A Sourcebook (2nd ed.). The Free Press. pp.  11–13. ISBN   978-0-02-908752-7.
  15. ↑ Cai, Zong-qi (July 1999). "In Quest of Harmony: Plato and Confucius on Poetry". Philosophy East and West. 49 (3): 317–345. doi:10.2307/1399898. JSTOR   1399898.
  16. ↑ Abondolo, Daniel (2001). A poetics handbook: verbal art in the European tradition. Curzon. pp. 52–53. ISBN   978-0-7007-1223-6.
  17. ↑ Gentz, Joachim (2008). "Ritual Meaning of Textual Form: Evidence from Early Commentaries of the Historiographic and Ritual Traditions". In Kern, Martin (ed.). Text and Ritual in Early China. University of Washington Press. pp. 124–148. ISBN   978-0-295-98787-3.
  18. ↑ Habib, Rafey (2005). A history of literary criticism. John Wiley & Sons. pp.  607–609, 620. ISBN   978-0-631-23200-1.
  19. ↑ Jarrett A. Lobell (March–April 2022). "Poetic License". Archaeology Magazine. Archived from the original on Dec 7, 2023.
  20. ↑ Alison Flood (September 8, 2021). "'I don't care': text shows modern poetry began much earlier than believed". The Guardian. Archived from the original on Jan 18, 2024.
  21. ↑ Tim Whitmarsh (August 2021). "Less Care, More Stress: A Rhythmic Poem From the Roman Empire". The Cambridge Classical Journal. 67: 135–163. doi: 10.1017/S1750270521000051 . S2CID   242230189 .
  22. 1 2 Finnegan, Ruth (2012). Oral Literature in Africa. Open Book Publishers.
  23. ↑ Conteh-Morgan, John (1994). "African traditional drama and issues in theater and performance criticism". Comparative Drama.
  24. ↑ Stern, Theodore (October 2009). "Drum and whistle languages: An analysis of speech surrogates". American Anthropologist . 59 (3): 487–506. doi:10.1525/aa.1957.59.3.02a00070. JSTOR   665914.
  25. ↑ "The Republic". www.gutenberg.org.
  26. ↑ Butcher, S. H. (trans.); Fergusson, Francis (intro.) (1961). Aristotle's Poetics. New York: Hill and Wang. p. 2. ISBN   0809005271.
  27. ↑ Heath, ed. (1997). Aristotle's Poetics.
  28. ↑ Boggess, W.F. (1968). "Hermannus Alemannus Latin anthology of Arabic poetry". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 88 (4): 657–670. doi:10.2307/598112. JSTOR   598112.
  29. ↑ Burnett, Charles (2001). "Learned knowledge of Arabic poetry, rhymed prose, and didactic verse from Petrus Alfonsi to Petrarch". Poetry and Philosophy in the Middle Ages: A festschrift for Peter Dronke. BRILL. ISBN   90-04-11964-7.
  30. ↑ Grendler, Paul F. (2004). The Universities of the Italian Renaissance. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 239. ISBN   0-8018-8055-6. — for the prominence of Aristotle and the Poetics on the Renaissance curriculum.
  31. ↑ Benardete, Seth; Davis, Michael (2002). Aristotle On poetics. South Bend, Ind: St. Augustine's Press. p. 1447a-1447b. ISBN   1587310260.
  32. ↑ Goodrum, R. Gordon (September 1995). "The Poetry of Wandering Scholars and Wayward Clerics". The Choral Journal. 36: 9. Retrieved 26 April 2023.

See also

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