The Story of Sinuhe (also referred to as Sanehat or Sanhath)[2] is a work of ancient Egyptian literature. It was likely composed in the beginning of the Twelfth Dynasty after the death of Amenemhat I (also referred to as Senwosret I). The tale describes an Egyptian man who flees his kingdom, and lives as a foreigner before returning to Egypt shortly before his death. It explores universal themes such as divine providence and mercy. The oldest known copy of the text dates to the reign of Amenemhat III, around 1800 BCE. The work was so popular within Egypt that newer copies have been found ranging up to 750 years after the original.[3]
The Story of Sinuhe is written in verse and opens with a wording similarly stylized like other autobiographical coffin texts that are common in Middle Kingdom Egyptian tombs. Theoretically, the Story of Sinuhe would have been inscribed on his supposed tomb.[3] The opening stanzas list Sinuhe’s accomplishments, titles, and ways he was of service to the royal family. Sinuhe claims to be, “...the True Acquaintance of the King, whom he loves, the follower, Sinuhe says, I was a follower who followed his lord, a servant of the royal chambers". Then it breaks away from this styling and transitions to Sinuhe receiving the news of the sudden death of the old king while he is on an expedition in Libyia with the king’s oldest son. Upon hearing the news, Sinuhe is highly upset and enters a panicked state, “my heart staggered, my arms spread out; trembling fell on every limb. I removed myself, leaping, to look for a hiding place”. Sinuhe flees away from Egypt, sneaks past guards, crosses the Lake Maaty and sets out for foreign lands. He travels beyond Egypt and eventually collapses due to dehydration, having a close brush with death. In the next scene he is rescued by a Syrian leader who recognized Sinuhe, “a leader of theirs, who had once been in Egypt, recognized me. Then he gave me water, he boiled milk for me”. Sinuhe is nursed back to health and eventually, after more travelling, meets Amunenshi, the ruler of upper Retjenu. He begins his new life and attempts to establish an identity amongst a culture he is unfamiliar with. Amunenshi entrusts him to command his armies, and it is through this command that Sinuhe becomes engaged in conflict with a challenger. Although Sinuhe is victorious in this conflict, it onsets a desperation for his homeland. At one point Sinuhe exclaims, “whatever god fated the flight—be gracious, and bring me home! Surely you will let me see the place where my heart still stays! What matters more than my being buried in the land where I was born?”. Luckily the new king, Senusret I, sends for Sinuhe to return to Egypt. Sinuhe is delighted and thus begins a lengthy correspondence between the King and Sinuhe. Sinuhe eventually writes to Senusret I, “Whether I am at home, whether I am in this place—it is you who veils this horizon of mine”. Eventually the King offers to allow Sinuhe to be buried in Egypt. Sinuhe returns to Egypt and also the royal court. There he is cleansed and restored in his Egyptian identity. The story closes with Sinuhe addressing the visitors of his tomb, and the tale returns to its original funerary text stylization.[4]
Sources
One of the oldest versions of this text was found by James Edward Quibell in an expedition to western Thebes in 1896. The excavation took place in several Middle Kingdom tombs found in the back of the Ramesseum. Here, Quibell found various fragments of papyri, later named the Ramesseum papyri.[5] Many of these were of a medicinal subject matter, but literary texts have also been found, including the Story of Sinuhe.[6] These fragments date back to the late 13th dynasty. Additionally, Quibell and his team also found a small chest, reed pens and several other items of interest. In a discussion about this archaeological expedition, author Alan Gardiner made note of the fragility and poor condition that the papyrus was found in; “if a fragment of the material were pressed slightly between the finger and thumb it disappeared in a mere dust". This copy of the Story of Sinuhe is written in hieratic. Gardiner used information from Quibell’s findings as well as a later ostracon to work on an English translation of the text. As the early ostracon and combined fragments from the Quibelll expedition allowed for a more complete version of the tale.[5] He published his work in translating the tale in 1916.[7] Other authors have been able to build on his work and adjust their own translations as needed, one notable example being Alyward M. Blackman who published his own notes in 1936 based on Gardiners work.[8]
A papyrus found in the Ramesseum tomb.
Many other versions of the text have been found. Including some fragments from a New Kingdom Ostracon,[9] and a duplicate of the text[10] discovered in the Museum of Natural History of Buenos Aires, as well as many more papyrus. Most scholars on Egyptian literature agree that the large prevalence of sources indicate a widescale popularity of the Story of Sinuhe and that it had been copied in multitudes.
Interpretations
The tale is notable for its age, as well as the popularity of the story in ancient history. It explores themes and morals that were a part of Egyptian ideals, such as order and chaos, or identity and the soul.[3] Sinuhe also demonstrates the value that Egyptians placed on their homeland—as Sinuhe only finds peace through being allowed to be buried in Egypt. Most authors agree in their discussion on Sinuhe that he represents a dichotomy between a loyal Egyptian and a deserter.[11] While the story mostly takes place in Sinuhe’s time outside of Egypt, this retelling of Sinuhe’s life outside of Egyptian lands serves to encourage “reflection on the nature of Egyptian life, particularly on an individual’s relationship to the king”.[3]
The funerary autobiographical nature of the opening and closing of the tale is also significant. The traditional beginning in which the text is stylized as though it is written on Sinuhe’s tomb, listing his accomplishments and service to the royal family, is broken upon his fearful fleeing when the King Amenehmat I dies. The remaining stanzas of the story do not fit more traditional Egyptian narrative styles, at least until Sinuhe is able to return and be laid to rest in Egypt. This is a key narrative choice showing how Sinuhe is disconnected from traditional Egyptian culture once he departs from the safety and security of his homeland.[3] Additionally, it is only when Sinuhe is sending his letters to the new king of Egypt, that examples of more traditional Egyptian stylization can be seen. Sinuhe praises the sender of the decree, King Senusret I, stating, “it is your spirit, Perfected God, Lord of the two lands, which is loved by the Sungod, and favored by Montu Lord of Thebes” he then goes on to list several gods in his praise. This form of writing is common in Middle Kingdom letters, and is another indication of Sinuhe only being able to experience Egyptian culture in direct connection to Egypt.[11] In a similar vein, the name “Sinuhe” does not appear after the opening stanzas until after Sinuhe begins correspondence with the king again.[12] Again showing Sinuhe’s disconnect from his heritage and identity upon his departure from Egypt. Another way of analyzing the narrative is that unlike most 'autobiographies' are written in some timeless fashion, however there is the underlying idea that Sinuhe desires to die within Egypt. Even if Sinuhe is alive at the end of the story, there's the underlying theme of wanting to reconnect with his culture directly, including dying within Egypt and receiving proper burial rites. As stated earlier, this is different from most autobiographies, most being written while they are alive, whereas with the Tale of Sinuhe, there is the implication of him passing on, perhaps most directly being stated within the Tale's final line: 'I was in the favours of the king's giving, until the day of landing came'(B 310 of Tale of Sinuhe) [13]
Some interpretations have also been made about the name Sinuhe. Sinuhe is derived from the Egyptian phrase sA-nht or “Son of the Sycamore Tree”. In Egyptian myth the Sycamore or, Tree of Life, is associated with Hathor, a fertility goddess.[14] Hathor being a goddess of fertility, there is possible interpretations for Sinuhe representing rebirth. Many homophones and etymologically related words to the term “sycomore”, nht, have to do with death, escape, and protection. Which are all common themes throughout the tale. Essentially, Sinuhe’s name serves as etymological foreshadowing for the ideals and events that take place throughout the story. Additionally upon his fleeing Sinuhe crosses a body of water, associated with Maat, while in the vicinity of a Sycamore tree. Further emphasizing their connection and perhaps illustrating Sinuhe’s fleeing of his own identity.[12]
There have also been some different opinions on Sinuhe’s reasoning for fleeing after the death of the king. Some state that many of Sinuhe’s fearful traits indicate that he is somehow involved in the king’s death. This would mean that he flees out of a need for self-preservation, making a rash decision that lands him outside of Egypt for the majority of his remaining life.[15] The more common school of thought, the “impulsive school” as titled by author Meltzer, simply reads that Sinuhe’s decision to flee was merely an impulse of fear due to the impending disorder upon the king’s demise. As the king’s death seems to shock Sinuhe, it is commonly inferred that he was murdered or assassinated. This seems likely considering that the king Amenemhat, who is likely the king in the story, was assassinated. Another interpretation of his departure is that it was an attempt to escape the rule and power of the monarchy. And that during all of the commotion of the king’s death, Sinuhe saw his chance to escape and fled.[12]
Of course there is more interpretations of Sinuhe's flight from Egypt aside from just interpretation. Egyptologist John Baines notes there is a couple ways to interpret that. One of them being in line with the general theme of homeland and connection to it, that being after the initial flight from Egypt, Sinuhe would be overcome by guilt in his abandonment of his people and homeland motivating him to move into exile for the majority rest of the story. It's further evident of how guilty Sinuhe felt when remembering how ancient Egyptian society is structured in such a way where order is extremely important, and as such, Sinuhe is willing turning away from a culture that is not only intrinsically connected to him, but also potentially greatly chaotic relative to what he's used to. A second way to interpret the flight from Libya away from the prince, is less about guilt and covers instead the concepts of grappling with internal morality. This meaning as opposed to Sinuhe discovering greater private morality or self fulfillment but rather instead Sinuhe was able to find salvation by re-identifying with the social role of that of an Egyptian.[16] Connecting this back to his flight, perhaps the social role within Egyptian society became shaken when the old king died. With pharaohs in Egypt being considered semi divine beings, it can be no surprise that Sinuhe was both panicked and grieving upon learning the news of his king's death.
Parallels
Parallels have been made between the biblical narrative of Joseph and the Story of Sinuhe. In what is seen as divine providence, Sinuhe the Egyptian flees to Syro-Canaan and becomes a member of the ruling elite, acquires a wife and family, before being reunited with his Egyptian family. Similarly, the Syro-Canaanite Joseph is taken to Egypt where he becomes part of the ruling elite, acquires a wife and family, before being reunited with his Syro-Canaanite family.[12] Parallels have also been drawn from other biblical texts: the Hebrew prophet Jonah's frustrated flight from the orbit of God's power is likened to Sinuhe's similar flight from the King.[17] The battle between David and Goliath is compared to Sinuhe's fight with a mighty challenger, whom he slays with a single blow, and the parable of the Prodigal Son is likened to Sinuhe's return home.[18]
Amenemhat III, also known as Amenemhet III, was a pharaoh of ancient Egypt and the sixth king of the Twelfth Dynasty of the Middle Kingdom. He was elevated to throne as co-regent by his father Senusret III, with whom he shared the throne as the active king for twenty years. During his reign, Egypt attained its cultural and economic zenith of the Middle Kingdom.
The Middle Kingdom of Egypt is the period in the history of ancient Egypt following a period of political division known as the First Intermediate Period. The Middle Kingdom lasted from approximately 2040 to 1782 BC, stretching from the reunification of Egypt under the reign of Mentuhotep II in the Eleventh Dynasty to the end of the Twelfth Dynasty. The kings of the Eleventh Dynasty ruled from Thebes and the kings of the Twelfth Dynasty ruled from el-Lisht.
The Twelfth Dynasty of ancient Egypt is a series of rulers reigning from 1991–1802 BC, at what is often considered to be the apex of the Middle Kingdom. The dynasty periodically expanded its territory from the Nile delta and valley South beyond the second cataract and East into Canaan.
Sir Alan Henderson Gardiner, was an English Egyptologist, linguist, philologist, and independent scholar. He is regarded as one of the premier Egyptologists of the early and mid-20th century.
Amenemhat IV was the seventh and penultimate king of the late Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt during the late Middle Kingdom period. He arguably ruled around 1786–1777 BC for about nine regnal years.
Amenemhat I, also known as Amenemhet I, was a pharaoh of ancient Egypt and the first king of the Twelfth Dynasty of the Middle Kingdom.
Nubkaure Amenemhat II, also known as Amenemhet II, was the third pharaoh of the 12th Dynasty of ancient Egypt. Although he ruled for at least 35 years, his reign is rather obscure, as well as his family relationships.
Senusret I also anglicized as Sesostris I and Senwosret I, was the second pharaoh of the Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt. He ruled from 1971 BC to 1926 BC, and was one of the most powerful kings of this Dynasty. He was the son of Amenemhat I. Senusret I was known by his prenomen, Kheperkare, which means "the Ka of Re is created." He expanded the territory of Egypt allowing him to rule over an age of prosperity.
Senusret II or Sesostris II was the fourth pharaoh of the Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt. He ruled from 1897 BC to 1878 BC. His pyramid was constructed at El-Lahun. Senusret II took a great deal of interest in the Faiyum oasis region and began work on an extensive irrigation system from Bahr Yussef through to Lake Moeris through the construction of a dike at El-Lahun and the addition of a network of drainage canals. The purpose of his project was to increase the amount of cultivable land in that area. The importance of this project is emphasized by Senusret II's decision to move the royal necropolis from Dahshur to El-Lahun where he built his pyramid. This location would remain the political capital for the 12th and 13th Dynasties of Egypt. Senusret II was known by his prenomen Khakheperre, which means "The Ka of Re comes into being". The king also established the first known workers' quarter in the nearby town of Senusrethotep (Kahun).
Khakaure Senusret III was a pharaoh of Egypt. He ruled from 1878 BC to 1839 BC during a time of great power and prosperity, and was the fifth king of the Twelfth Dynasty of the Middle Kingdom. He was a great pharaoh of the Twelfth Dynasty and is considered to rule at the height of the Middle Kingdom. Consequently, he is regarded as one of the sources for the legend about Sesostris. His military campaigns gave rise to an era of peace and economic prosperity that reduced the power of regional rulers and led to a revival in craftwork, trade, and urban development. Senusret III was among the few Egyptian kings who were deified and honored with a cult during their own lifetime.
The Prophecy of Neferti is one of the few surviving literary texts from ancient Egypt. The story is set in the Old Kingdom, under the reign of King Snefru. However, the text should be attributed to an individual named Neferyt, who most likely composed it at the beginning of the Twelfth Dynasty. The nature of the literary text is argued upon. There are a number of different theories stating that the literature is a historical romance in pseudo-prophetic form, political literature, religious motivation as well as a literary text created to change and improve the situation in Egypt during the Twelfth Dynasty.
Instructions of Amenemhat is a short ancient Egyptian poem of the sebayt genre written during the early Middle Kingdom. The poem takes the form of an intensely dramatic monologue delivered by the ghost of the murdered 12th Dynasty pharaoh Amenemhat I to his son Senusret I. It describes the conspiracy that killed Amenemhat, and enjoins his son to trust no-one. The poem forms a kind of apologia of the deeds of the old king's reign. It ends with an exhortation to Senusret to ascend the throne and rule wisely in Amenemhat's stead.
Retjenu, later known as Khor, was the Ancient Egyptian name for the wider Syrian region, where the Semitic-speaking Canaanites lived. Retjenu was located between the region north of the Sinai Desert and south of the Taurus Mountains in southern Anatolia. The term Retjenu was used to refer to this geographical area since the Middle Kingdom. The geographical area of Retjenu were defined during the New Kingdom and considered to have been a collection of small states ruled by princes. The boundaries of the area considered Retjenu shifted throughout time due to military, political, and economic factors. Retjenu was divided into two geographical regions. Djahy the southernmost region covered the area between Askalon and Mount Lebanon stretching inland to the Sea of Galilee. Amurru the northern region stretched between the Lebanon and Taurus Mountains. During Thutmose III's military campaigns in West Asia, the area of Djahy was referred to as Upper Retjenu and generally covered the area of Canaan. Lower Retjenu was used to refer to the area of Amurru but also incorporated the cities located along Phoenician coast.
Ancient Egyptian literature was written with the Egyptian language from ancient Egypt's pharaonic period until the end of Roman domination. It represents the oldest corpus of Egyptian literature. Along with Sumerian literature, it is considered the world's earliest literature.
Egyptian medical papyri are ancient Egyptian texts written on papyrus which permit a glimpse at medical procedures and practices in ancient Egypt. These papyri give details on disease, diagnosis, and remedies of disease, which include herbal remedies, surgery, and magical incantations. Many of these papyri have been lost due to grave robbery. The largest study of the medical papyri to date has been undertaken by Humboldt University of Berlin and was titled Medizin der alten Ägypter.
Richard Bruce Parkinson is a British Egyptologist and academic. He is Professor of Egyptology at the University of Oxford and a fellow of The Queen's College, Oxford. Until December 2013 he was a curator in the Department of Ancient Egypt and Sudan, British Museum.
This page list topics related to ancient Egypt.
John Wintour Baldwin Barns was a British Egyptologist, papyrologist, Anglican priest, and academic. From 1965 to 1974, he was Professor of Egyptology at the University of Oxford.
The Semna Despatches are a group of papyri that deals with observations of people in and around the forts of the Semna gorge. The fortresses were positioned at Semna because of the expansion of Egypt into Lower Nubia by Senusret III, and were a means of protecting and controlling access into Egypt. The Semna Despatches record the movements of people around the Semna Gorge, and reports their activity's back to an unnamed official in Thebes. Many of the Despatches deal with people who had come to the forts to trade with the Egyptians while others talk about patrols that had gone out and found people in the surrounding desert. The Semna Despatches provides the bulk of information that pertains to the administrative functions of the forts around the Semna Gorge.
The Ramesseum magician's box is a container discovered in 1885–1886 in a tomb underneath the Ramesseum by Flinders Petrie and James Quibell, containing papyri and items related to magical practices.
↑ Hoffmeier, James Karl (2005). Ancient Israel In Sinai: The Evidence for the Authenticity of the Wilderness Tradition. Oxford University Press. p.256.
↑ God's Word for Our World: Theological and cultural studies in honor of Simon John De Vries. Simon John De Vries, Edmund S. Meltzer, J. Harold Ellens, Deborah L. Ellens, Rolf P. Knierim, Isaac Kalimi. London: Continuum International Publishing Group. 2004. p.79. ISBN0-8264-6974-4. OCLC55872728.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
Barta, M. (2003). Sinuhe, the Bible and the Patriarchs, Czech Institute of Egyptology/David Brown Book Company.
Mahfouz, N. (2003). "The Return of Sinuhe" in Voices from the Other World (translated by Robert Stock), Random House.
Meltzer, E. S. (2004). "Sinuhe, Jonah and Joseph: Ancient ‘Far Travellers' and the Power of God", in: Ellens, J. H. et al. (eds.), God's Word for Our World, vol. II. Theological and Cultural Studies in Honor of Simon John De Vries (London-New York: Clark/Continuum), 77–81.
Morschauser, S. (2000). "What Made Sinuhe Run: Sinuhe's Reasoned Flight" in Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt Vol. 37, 187–98
Parkinson, R. B. (1997). The Tale of Sinuhe and Other Ancient Egyptian Poems 1940–1640 BC (Oxford World Classics). Oxford: Oxford U. Press.
Quirke, S. 2004. Egyptian Literature 1800BC: Questions and Readings, Golden House.
Tobin, V. A. (1995). "The Secret of Sinuhe" Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt Vol. 32, 161–78.
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