History of the lithium-ion battery

Varta lithium-ion battery, Museum Autovision, Altlussheim, Germany

This is a history of the lithium-ion battery.

Before lithium-ion: 1960-1975

• 1960s: Much of the basic research that led to the development of the intercalation compounds that form the core of lithium-ion batteries was carried out in the 1960s by Robert Huggins and Carl Wagner, who studied the movement of ions in solids. ^[1] In a 1967 report by the US military, plastic polymers were already used as binders for electrodes and graphite as a constituent for both cathodes and anodes, mostly for cathodes. ^[2]
• 1970s: Reversible intercalation of lithium ions into graphite as anodes ^{[3] [4] [5]} and intercalation of lithium ions into cathodic oxide as cathodes ^{[5] [6] [7]} was discovered during 1974–76 by Jürgen Otto Besenhard at TU Munich. Besenhard proposed its application in lithium cells. ^{[8] [9]} What was missing in Besenhard's batteries is a solvent showing no co-intercalation into graphite, electrolyte decomposition and corrosion of current collectors. Thus, his batteries had very short cycle lives.
• 1970s: Reversible intercalation of lithium ions into layered cathode materials. British chemist M. Stanley Whittingham, then a researcher at ExxonMobil, first reported a charge-discharge cycling with a lithium metal battery (a precursor to modern lithium-ion batteries) in the 1970s. ^[5] Drawing on previous research from his time at Stanford University, ^[10] he used a layered titanium(IV) sulfide as cathode and lithium metal as anode. ^{[5] [11]} However, this setup proved impractical. Titanium disulfide was expensive (~$1,000 per kilogram in the 1970s) and difficult to work with, since it has to be synthesized under completely oxygen- and moisture-free conditions. When exposed to air, it reacts to form hydrogen sulfide compounds, which have an unpleasant odour and are toxic to humans and most animals. For this, and other reasons, Exxon discontinued development of Whittingham's lithium-titanium disulfide battery. ^[1]

Batteries with metallic lithium electrodes presented safety issues, most importantly the formation of lithium dendrites, that internally short-circuit the battery resulting in explosions. Also, dendrites often lose electronic contact with current collectors leading to a loss of cyclable Li+ charge. ^[12] Consequently, research moved to develop batteries in which, instead of metallic lithium, only lithium compounds are present, being capable of accepting and releasing lithium ions.

• 1973: Adam Heller proposed the lithium thionyl chloride battery, still used in implanted medical devices and in defense systems where a greater than 20-year shelf life, high energy density, and/or tolerance for extreme operating temperatures are required. ^[13] However, this battery employs unsafe lithium metal and was not rechargeable.

The log number of publications about electrochemical powersources by year. lithium-ion batteries are shown in red. The magenta line is the inflation-adjusted oil price in US$/liter in linear scale.

The number of non-patent publications about lithium-ion batteries grouped by authors' country vs. publication year.

Precommercial development: 1974-1990

• 1974: Besenhard was the first to show reversibility of Li-ion intercalation into graphite anodes, using organic solvents, including carbonate solvents. ^{[5] [14] [3] [4] [6] [7] [8] [9]}
• 1976: Stanley Whittingham and his colleagues at Exxon demonstrated what can be considered the first rechargeable "lithium-ion battery", although not a single component in this design was used in commercial lithium-ion batteries later. ^[15] Whittingham's cell was assembled in a charged state using lithium aluminum alloy as the negode, LiBPh4 (lithium tetraphenylborate) in dioxolane as the electrolyte and TiS2 as the posode. The battery useful cycle life was no more than 50 cycles. This design was based on Whittigham's earlier Li-metal batteries. ^[16]
• 1977: Samar Basu et al. demonstrated irreversible intercalation of lithium in graphite at the University of Pennsylvania. ^{[17] [18]} This led to the development of a workable lithium intercalated graphite electrode at Bell Labs in 1984 (LiC
  _⁶) ^[19] to provide an alternative to the lithium metal electrode battery. However it was only a molten salt cell battery rather than a lithium-ion battery.
• 1978: Michel Armand introduced the term and a concept of a rocking-chair battery, ^[20] where the same type of ion is de/intercalated into both positive and negative electrode during dis/charge. In the rocking-chair design solution-phase species do not appear in the reaction stoichiometry, which allows for minizing the amount of solvent in the battery, reduces the battery weight and cost.
• 1979: Working in separate groups, Ned A. Godshall et al., ^{[21] [22] [23]} and, shortly thereafter, John B. Goodenough (Oxford University) and Koichi Mizushima (Tokyo University), demonstrated limited discharge-charge cycling of a 4 V cell made with lithium cobalt dioxide (LiCoO
  _²) as the positive electrode and lithium metal as the negative electrode. ^{[24] [25]} This innovation provided the positive electrode material, which eventually became a component in the first commercial rechargeable lithium-ion battery. LiCoO
  _² is a stable positive electrode material which acts as a donor of lithium ions, which means that it can be used with a negative electrode material other than lithium metal. ^[26] By enabling the use of stable and easy-to-handle negative electrode materials, LiCoO
  _² enabled novel rechargeable battery systems. Godshall et al. further identified the similar value of ternary compound lithium-transition metal-oxides such as the spinel LiMn₂O₄, Li₂MnO₃, LiMnO₂, LiFeO₂, LiFe₅O₈, and LiFe₅O₄ (and later lithium-copper-oxide and lithium-nickel-oxide cathode materials in 1985) ^[27] Godshall et al. patent U.S. patent 4,340,652 ^[28] for the use of LiCoO₂ as cathodes in lithium batteries was based on Godshall's Stanford University Ph.D. dissertation and 1979 publications.
• 1980: M.Lazzari and Bruno Scrosati at the University of Rome validated the concept of rocking-chair battery using lithium tungsten dioxide as the anode, titanium disulfide as the cathode and lithium perchlorate in propylene carbonate as the electrolyte. ^[29]
• 1980's: The negative electrode has its origins in PAS (polyacenic / polyacetylene semiconductive material) discovered by Tokio Yamabe and later by Shizukuni Yata in the early 1980s. ^{[30] [31] [32] [33]} This development was inspired by an earlier discovery of conductive polymers by Professor Hideki Shirakawa and his group, and it could also be seen as having started from the polyacetylene lithium-ion battery developed by Alan MacDiarmid and Alan J. Heeger et al. ^[34]
• 1983: Rachid Yazami demonstrated the reversible electrochemical intercalation of lithium in graphite at room temperature using polyethylene oxide solvent. ^{[35] [36] [37] [38]} The organic battery solvents, known at the time, decompose during charging with a graphite negative electrode. For this reason, Yazami used a solid electrolyte to demonstrate that lithium could be reversibly intercalated into graphite via an electrochemical mechanism at room temperature.
• 1983: Michael M. Thackeray, Peter Bruce, William David, and John B. Goodenough developed manganese spinel, Mn₂O₄, as a charged cathode material for lithium-ion batteries. It has two flat plateaus on discharge, with lithium one at 4 V, stoichiometry LiMn₂O₄, and one at 3 V with a final stoichiometry of Li₂Mn₂O₄. ^[39]
• 1985: Akira Yoshino demonstrated a rechargeable Li-ion battery using carbonaceous material (acetylene black), into which lithium ions could be inserted, as the negative electrode (anode) and lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO
  _²) as the positive electrode (cathode). ^[40] This dramatically improved safety LiCoO
  _² and prepared Sony for commercial launch of a rechargeable lithium-ion battery 5 years later. Yoshino's design in 1985 was different from the final (1990) design in using 0.6 mol of LiClO₄ (rather than LiPF₆) in propylene carbonate (without ethylene or linear carbonate used currently to passivate the graphite negode) and in using polyacrylonitrile rather than polyvinylidene difluoride as the binder.
• 1986 : Around the same time as Akira Yoshino, Auborn and Barberio at Bell Laboratory independently demonstrated another true rocking-chair battery assembled in the fully discharged state. Their 1.8 V lithium-ion battery comprised LiCoO2 as the posode, 1M LiPF6 in propylene carbonate as the electrolyte and MoO2 as the negode. ^[41]
• 1986 : Asahi researchers, led by Akira Yoshino, demonstrated rechargeable battery with lithium tetrafluoroborate (LiBF4) dissolved in a mixture of PC, gamma-butyrolactone (γBL) and ethylene carbonate (EC), as the electrolyte. The fluorinated anion turned out to be effective in passivating the Al current collector and compatible with the solvents, while ethylene carbonate (which is solid at room temperature and is mixed with other solvents to make a liquid) provided th necessary solid electrolyte interphase on the anode, thus publicly disclosing the final piece of the puzzle leading to the modern lithium-ion battery. ^[42] This design was practically identical (except for LiBF4 being replaced with LiPF6, which is less reactive with the solvent(s)) to the one used in commercial lithium-ion batteries today.
• 1987-1989: Arumugam Manthiram and John B. Goodenough discovered the polyanion class of cathodes. ^{[43] [44] [45]} They showed that positive electrodes containing polyanions, e.g., sulfates, produce higher voltages than oxides due to the inductive effect of the polyanion. This polyanion class contains materials such as lithium iron phosphate. ^[46]
• 1989:The recall of Moli Energy cells, comprising lithium metal, abruptly changed researchers’ perception in favor of heavier but safer dual-intercalation (i.e. lithium-ion rather than lithium-metal) batteries. ^[42]
• 1989-10-11: Jeff Dahn and two colleagues at Moli Energy in Burnaby (Canada) submit a journal article, proving a reversible intercalation of lithium ions into graphite in the presence of ethylene carbonate solvent (in 50:50 mixture with propylene carbonate and with 1M LiAsF6 salt), and demonstrating the formation of solid electrolyte intephase on the first charge, followed by a reversible battery cycling. ^[47] This is essentially the composition, which will be used in commercial Li-ion batteries since 1992, except for LiAsF6 having been replaced with cheaper and less toxic LiPF6.
• 1990: Rachid Yazami at the French National Centre for Scientific Research in Grenoble, France starts collaborating with Sony on developing graphite anode and liquid electrolyte for lithium-ion batteries, eventually discovering the magic ethylene carbonate solvent, which resulted in almost doubling (to 155 Wh/kg) the specific energy of cells with soft carbon anodes. ^[48]
• 1990-12-10: Sanyo Electric of Japan files a patent application, that describes a rechargeable (ca. 250 cycles) lithium metal battery with a mixed ethylene carbonate + dimethyl carbonate solvent and LiPF6 as the electrolyte. ^[49]
• 1990: The English term "lithium-ion battery", which was invented as a marketing tool to distinguish the new technology from ill-fated lithium metal batteries appeared for the first time in a publication. ^[48] It was used by Sony employees. ^[50]

In 2017 (2 years before the 2019 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded) George Blomgren offered some speculations on why Akira Yoshino's group produced a commercially viable lithium-ion battery before Jeff Dahn's group: ^[51]

• The Dahn group tested the carbonaceous positive electrode against lithium instead of a metal oxide. Therefore, they did not observe the severe corrosion of an aluminum positive current collector with the LiAsF6 electrolyte, but Yoshino et al. used ... LiPF6, which was commonly used for primary lithium metal batteries in Japan.
• Yoshino et al. also studied various binders including the ultimate winner- polyvinylidene fluoride, while Dahn's group used only ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM), which turned out to be not durable enough for commercial LIBs.

Commercialization in portable applications: 1991-2007

The performance and capacity of lithium-ion batteries increased as development progressed.

• 1991: Sony and Asahi Kasei started commercial sale of the first rechargeable lithium-ion battery. ^[52] The Japanese team that successfully commercialized the technology was led by Yoshio Nishi. ^[53] 1991 ushered the Second Period (commercialization) in the history of lithium-ion batteries, which is reflected as inflection points in the plots "The log number of publications about electrochemical powersources by year" and "The number of non-patent publications about lithium-ion batteries" shown on this page. The battery employed soft carbon (rather than graphite) anode and LiCoO2 cathode. Sony's success with the development of lithium-ion battery manufacturing benefited from the company's prior experience with manufacturing monodisperse (20 μm) metal oxide microparticles and with coating processes for magnetic tapes. ^[54]
• 1994: iconectiv First commercialization of Li polymer by Bellcore. ^[55]
• 1994: The first aqueous Li-ion “rocking chair” chemistry was demonstrated by Dahn et al. It had a VO2 anode and LiMn2O4 cathode in a 5 M LiNO3 electrolyte with 1 mM LiOH. ^[56]
• 1996: Goodenough, Akshaya Padhi and coworkers proposed lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO
  _⁴) and other phospho-olivines (lithium metal phosphates with the same structure as mineral olivine) as positive electrode materials. ^{[57] [58]}
• 1996: Sony and Nissan announced a partnership to develop a lithium-ion battery powered car FEV II with a 124 mile driving range. ^[59]
• 1998: C. S. Johnson, J. T. Vaughey, M. M. Thackeray, T. E. Bofinger, and S. A. Hackney report the discovery of the high capacity high voltage lithium-rich NMC cathode materials. ^[60]
• 2001: Arumugam Manthiram and co-workers discovered that the capacity limitations of layered oxide cathodes is a result of chemical instability that can be understood based on the relative positions of the metal 3d band relative to the top of the oxygen 2p band. ^{[61] [62] [63]} This discovery has had significant implications for the practically accessible compositional space of lithium-ion battery layered oxide cathodes, as well as their stability from a safety perspective.
• 2001: Christopher Johnson, Michael Thackeray, Khalil Amine, and Jaekook Kim file a patent ^{[64] [65]} for lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) lithium rich cathodes based on a domain structure.
• 2001: Zhonghua Lu and Jeff Dahn file a patent ^[66] for the NMC class of positive electrode materials, which offers safety and energy density improvements over the widely used lithium cobalt oxide.
• 2002: Yet-Ming Chiang and his group at MIT showed a substantial improvement in the performance of lithium batteries by boosting the LiFePO4 material's conductivity by doping it ^[67] with aluminium, niobium and zirconium. The exact mechanism causing the increase became the subject of widespread debate. ^[68]
• 2004: Yet-Ming Chiang again increased performance by utilizing lithium iron phosphate particles of less than 100 nanometers in diameter. This decreased particle density almost one hundredfold, increased the positive electrode's surface area and improved capacity and performance. Commercialization led to a rapid growth in the market for higher capacity lithium-ion batteries, as well as a patent infringement battle between Chiang and John Goodenough. ^[68]
• 2004: The number of non-patent publications about lithium-ion batteries from PR China surpassed that from the USA. Japan was the third leading country till 2011, when it was surpassed by South Korea.
• 2005: Y Song, PY Zavalij, and M. Stanley Whittingham report a new two-electron vanadium phosphate cathode material with high energy density ^{[69] [70]}

Commercialization in automotive applications: 2008-today

• 2008: The launch of Tesla Roadster- the first highway legal, serial production, all-electric car to use lithium-ion battery cells, and the first production all-electric car to travel more than 244 miles (393 km) per charge- ushered a new era in the history of Li-ion batteries, which is signified as inflection points in the plots "The log number of publications about electrochemical powersources by year" and "The number of non-patent publications about lithium-ion batteries" shown on this page.
• 2011: Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) cathodes, developed at Argonne National Laboratory, are manufactured commercially by BASF in Ohio. ^[71]
• 2011: Lithium-ion batteries accounted for 66% of all portable secondary (i.e., rechargeable) battery sales in Japan. ^[72]
• 2012: John Goodenough, Rachid Yazami and Akira Yoshino received the 2012 IEEE Medal for Environmental and Safety Technologies for developing the lithium-ion battery. ^[38]
• 2014: John Goodenough, Yoshio Nishi, Rachid Yazami and Akira Yoshino were awarded the Charles Stark Draper Prize of the National Academy of Engineering for their pioneering efforts in the field. ^[73]
• 2014: Commercial batteries from Amprius Corp. reached 650 Wh/L (a 20% increase), using a silicon anode and were delivered to customers. ^[74]
• 2016: Koichi Mizushima and Akira Yoshino received the NIMS Award from the National Institute for Materials Science, for Mizushima's discovery of the LiCoO₂ cathode material for the lithium-ion battery and Yoshino's development of the lithium-ion battery. ^[75]
• 2016: Z. Qi, and Gary Koenig reported a scalable method to produce sub-micrometer sized LiCoO
  _² using a template-based approach. ^[76]
• 2019: The Nobel Prize in Chemistry was given to John Goodenough, Stanley Whittingham and Akira Yoshino "for the development of lithium ion batteries". ^[77]
• 2022: Battery startup SPARKZ announced plans to convert a glass plant in Bridgeport, WV to produce zero-cobalt lithium batteries. ^[78]

Market

Learning curve of lithium-ion batteries: the price of batteries declined by 97% in three decades.

Industry produced about 660 million cylindrical lithium-ion cells in 2012; the 18650 size is by far the most popular for cylindrical cells. If Tesla were to have met its goal of shipping 40,000 Model S electric cars in 2014 and if the 85 kWh battery, which uses 7,104 of these cells, had proved as popular overseas as it was in the United States, a 2014 study projected that the Model S alone would use almost 40 percent of estimated global cylindrical battery production during 2014. ^[81] As of 2013 ^[update] , production was gradually shifting to higher-capacity 3,000+ mAh cells. Annual flat polymer cell demand was expected to exceed 700 million in 2013. ^{[82] [ needs update ]}

Prices of lithium-ion batteries have fallen over time. Overall, between 1991 and 2018, prices for all types of lithium-ion cells (in dollars per kWh) fell approximately 97%. ^[79] Over the same time period, energy density more than tripled. ^[79] Efforts to increase energy density contributed significantly to cost reduction. ^[83]

In 2015, cost estimates ranged from $300–500/kWh^{[ clarification needed ]}. ^[84] In 2016 GM revealed they would be paying US$145/kWh for the batteries in the Chevy Bolt EV. ^[85] In 2017, the average residential energy storage systems installation cost was expected to drop from $1600 /kWh in 2015 to $250 /kWh by 2040 and to see the price with 70% reduction by 2030. ^[86] In 2019, some electric vehicle battery pack costs were estimated at $150–200, ^[87] and VW noted it was paying US$100/kWh for its next generation of electric vehicles. ^[88]

Batteries are used for grid energy storage and ancillary services. For a Li-ion storage coupled with photovoltaics and an anaerobic digestion biogas power plant, Li-ion will generate a higher profit if it is cycled more frequently (hence a higher lifetime electricity output) although the lifetime is reduced due to degradation. ^[89]

Several types of lithium nickel cobalt manganese oxide (NCM) and lithium nickel cobalt aluminium oxide (NCA) cathode powders with a layered structure are commercially available. Their chemical compositions are specified by the molar ratio of component metals. NCM 111 (or NCM 333) have equimolar parts of nickel, cobalt and manganese. Notably, in NCM cathodes, manganese is not electroactive and remains in the oxidation state +4 during battery's charge-discharge cycling. Cobalt is cycled between the oxidation states +3 and +4, and nickel - between +2 and +4. Due to the higher price of cobalt and due to the higher number of cyclable electrons per nickel atom, high-nickel (also known as "nickel-rich") materials (with Ni atomic percentage > 50%) gain considerable attention from both battery researchers and battery manufacturers. However, high-Ni cathodes are prone to O2 evolution and Li+/Ni4+ cation mixing upon overcharging. ^[90]

As of 2019 ^[update] , NMC 532 and NMC 622 were the preferred low-cobalt types for electric vehicles, with NMC 811 and even lower cobalt ratios seeing increasing use, mitigating cobalt dependency. ^{[91] [92] [87]} However, cobalt for electric vehicles increased 81% from the first half of 2018 to 7,200 tonnes in the first half of 2019, for a battery capacity of 46.3 GWh. ^[93]

In 2010, global lithium-ion battery production capacity was 20 gigawatt-hours. ^[94] By 2016, it was 28 GWh, with 16.4 GWh in China. ^[95] Production in 2021 is estimated by various sources to be between 200 and 600 GWh, and predictions for 2023 range from 400 to 1,100 GWh. ^[96]

An antitrust-violating price-fixing cartel among nine corporate families, including LG Chem, GS Yuasa, Hitachi Maxell, NEC, Panasonic/Sanyo, Samsung, Sony, and Toshiba was found to be rigging battery prices and restricting output between 2000 and 2011. ^{[97] [98] [99] [100]}

References

1. Fletcher, Seth (2011). Bottled Lightning: Superbatteries, Electric Cars, and the New Lithium Economy. Macmillan.
2. Braeuer, Klaus H.; Harvey, Jay A. (1967-05-01). Status Report on Organic Electrolyte High-Energy Density Batteries (Report). Fort Belvoir, VA: Defense Technical Information Center. doi:10.21236/ada306363.
3. Besenhard, J.O. & Fritz, H.P. (1974). "Cathodic Reduction of Graphite in Organic Solutions of Alkali and NR₄⁺ Salts". J. Electroanal. Chem. 53 (2): 329–333. doi:10.1016/S0022-0728(74)80146-4.
4. Besenhard, J. O. (1976). "The electrochemical preparation and properties of ionic alkali metal-and NR₄-graphite intercalation compounds in organic electrolytes". Carbon. 14 (2): 111–115. Bibcode:1976Carbo..14..111B. doi:10.1016/0008-6223(76)90119-6.
5. Da Deng (2015). "Li-ion batteries: basics, progress, and challenges". Energy Science and Engineering. 3 (5): 385–418. Bibcode:2015EneSE...3..385D. doi: 10.1002/ese3.95 . S2CID   110310835.
6. Schöllhorn, R.; Kuhlmann, R.; Besenhard, J. O. (1976). "Topotactic redox reactions and ion exchange of layered MoO₃ bronzes". Materials Research Bulletin. 11: 83–90. doi:10.1016/0025-5408(76)90218-X.
7. Besenhard, J. O.; Schöllhorn, R. (1976). "The discharge reaction mechanism of the MoO₃ electrode in organic electrolytes". Journal of Power Sources. 1 (3): 267–276. Bibcode:1976JPS.....1..267B. doi:10.1016/0378-7753(76)81004-X.
8. Besenhard, J. O.; Eichinger, G. (1976). "High energy density lithium cells: Part I. Electrolytes and anodes". Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry and Interfacial Electrochemistry. 68: 1–18. doi:10.1016/S0022-0728(76)80298-7.
9. Eichinger, G.; Besenhard, J. O. (1976). "High energy density lithium cells: Part II. Cathodes and complete cells". Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry and Interfacial Electrochemistry. 72: 1–31. doi:10.1016/S0022-0728(76)80072-1.
10. "Charging Up the Development of Lithium Batteries".
11. Whittingham, M. S. (1976). "Electrical Energy Storage and Intercalation Chemistry". Science. 192 (4244): 1126–1127. Bibcode:1976Sci...192.1126W. doi:10.1126/science.192.4244.1126. PMID   17748676. S2CID   36607505.
12. Xiao, Jie (25 October 2019). "How lithium dendrites form in liquid batteries". Science. 366 (6464): 426–427. doi:10.1126/science.aay8672. PMID   31649185.
13. Heller, Adam (25 November 1975). "Electrochemical Cell". United States Patent. Retrieved 18 November 2013.
14. Li, Matthew; Lu, Jun; Chen, Zhongwei; Amine, Khalil (2018). "30 Years of Lithium-Ion Batteries". Advanced Materials. 30 (33). doi:10.1002/adma.201800561. ISSN   0935-9648. PMID   29904941.
15. Lithium-titanium disulfide rechargeable cell performance after 35 years of storage. 2015. J Power Sources. 280/18-22. N. Pereira, G.G. Amatucci, M.S. Whittingham, R. Hamlen. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2015.01.056.
16. ELECTRICAL ENERGY-STORAGE AND INTERCALATION CHEMISTRY. 1976. Science. 192/4244, 1126-7. M.S. Whittingham. doi: 10.1126/science.192.4244.1126
17. Zanini, M.; Basu, S.; Fischer, J. E. (1978). "Alternate synthesis and reflectivity spectrum of stage 1 lithium—graphite intercalation compound". Carbon. 16 (3): 211–212. Bibcode:1978Carbo..16..211Z. doi:10.1016/0008-6223(78)90026-X.
18. Basu, S.; Zeller, C.; Flanders, P. J.; Fuerst, C. D.; Johnson, W. D.; Fischer, J. E. (1979). "Synthesis and properties of lithium-graphite intercalation compounds". Materials Science and Engineering. 38 (3): 275–283. doi:10.1016/0025-5416(79)90132-0.
19. US 4304825,Basu; Samar,"Rechargeable battery",issued 8 December 1981, assigned to Bell Telephone Laboratories 
20. 1978 NATO conference on Materials for Advanced Batteries, Aussios, France. Cited from ISBN 978-1-61249-762-4. page 94.
21. Godshall, N.A.; Raistrick, I.D.; Huggins, R.A. (1980). "Thermodynamic investigations of ternary lithium-transition metal-oxygen cathode materials". Materials Research Bulletin. 15 (5): 561. doi:10.1016/0025-5408(80)90135-X.
22. Godshall, Ned A. (17 October 1979) "Electrochemical and Thermodynamic Investigation of Ternary Lithium -Transition Metal-Oxide Cathode Materials for Lithium Batteries: Li₂MnO₄ spinel, LiCoO₂, and LiFeO₂", Presentation at 156th Meeting of the Electrochemical Society, Los Angeles, CA.
23. Godshall, Ned A. (18 May 1980) Electrochemical and Thermodynamic Investigation of Ternary Lithium-Transition Metal-Oxygen Cathode Materials for Lithium Batteries. Ph.D. Dissertation, Stanford University
24. "USPTO search for inventions by "Goodenough, John"". Patft.uspto.gov. Archived from the original on 25 February 2021. Retrieved 8 October 2011.
25. Mizushima, K.; Jones, P. C.; Wiseman, P. J.; Goodenough, J. B. (1980). "Li
    _^xCoO
    _²(0<x<-1): A new cathode material for batteries of high energy density". Materials Research Bulletin. 15 (6): 783–789. doi:10.1016/0025-5408(80)90012-4. S2CID   97799722.
26. Poizot, P.; Laruelle, S.; Grugeon, S.; Tarascon, J. (2000). "Nano-sized transition-metal oxides as negative-electrode materials for lithium-ion batteries". Nature. 407 (6803): 496–499. Bibcode:2000Natur.407..496P. doi:10.1038/35035045. PMID   11028997. S2CID   205009092.
27. Godshall, N (1986). "Lithium transport in ternary lithium-copper-oxygen cathode materials". Solid State Ionics. 18–19: 788–793. doi:10.1016/0167-2738(86)90263-8.
28. Godshall, N. A.; Raistrick, I. D. and Huggins, R. A. U.S. patent 4,340,652 "Ternary Compound Electrode for Lithium Cells"; issued 20 July 1982, filed by Stanford University on 30 July 1980.
29. CYCLABLE LITHIUM ORGANIC ELECTROLYTE CELL BASED ON 2 INTERCALATION ELECTRODES. 1980. J Electrochem Soc. 127/3, 773-4. M. Lazzari, B. Scrosati. doi: 10.1149/1.2129753
30. Yamabe, T. (2015). "Lichiumu Ion Niji Denchi: Kenkyu Kaihatu No Genryu Wo Kataru" [Lithium Ion Rechargeable Batteries: Tracing the Origins of Research and Development: Focus on the History of Negative-Electrode Material Development]. The Journal Kagaku (in Japanese). 70 (12): 40–46. Archived from the original on 8 August 2016. Retrieved 15 June 2016.
31. Novák, P.; Muller, K.; Santhanam, K. S. V.; Haas, O. (1997). "Electrochemically Active Polymers for Rechargeable Batteries". Chem. Rev. 97 (1): 271–272. doi:10.1021/cr941181o. PMID   11848869.
32. Yamabe, T.; Tanaka, K.; Ohzeki, K.; Yata, S. (1982). "Electronic Structure of Polyacenacene. A One-Dimensional Graphite". Solid State Communications. 44 (6): 823. Bibcode:1982SSCom..44..823Y. doi:10.1016/0038-1098(82)90282-4.
33. US 4601849,Yata, S.,"Electrically conductive organic polymeric material and process for production thereof" 
34. Nigrey, Paul J (1981). "Lightweight Rechargeable Storage Batteries Using Polyacetylene (CH)_x as the Cathode-Active Material". Journal of the Electrochemical Society. 128 (8): 1651. Bibcode:1981JElS..128.1651N. doi: 10.1149/1.2127704 .
35. International Meeting on Lithium Batteries, Rome, 27–29 April 1982, C.L.U.P. Ed. Milan, Abstract #23
36. Yazami, R.; Touzain, P. (1983). "A reversible graphite-lithium negative electrode for electrochemical generators". Journal of Power Sources. 9 (3): 365–371. Bibcode:1983JPS.....9..365Y. doi:10.1016/0378-7753(83)87040-2.
37. "Rachid Yazami". National Academy of Engineering . Retrieved 12 October 2019.
38. "IEEE Medal for Environmental and Safety Technologies Recipients". IEEE Medal for Environmental and Safety Technologies . Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. Archived from the original on March 25, 2019. Retrieved 29 July 2019.
39. Thackeray, M. M.; David, W. I. F.; Bruce, P. G.; Goodenough, J. B. (1983). "Lithium insertion into manganese spinels". Materials Research Bulletin. 18 (4): 461–472. doi:10.1016/0025-5408(83)90138-1.
40. US 4668595,Yoshino; Akira,"Secondary Battery",issued 10 May 1985, assigned to Asahi Kasei 
41. Lithium Intercalation Cells Without Metallic Lithium MoO2/LiCoO2 and WO2/LiCoO2. 1987. J Electrochem Soc. 134/3, 638-41. J.J. Auborn, Y.L. Barberio. doi: 10.1149/1.2100521.
42. Before Li Ion Batteries. 2018. Chem Rev. 118/23, 11433-56. M. Winter, B. Barnett, K. Xu. doi: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.8b00422.
43. Manthiram, A.; Goodenough, J. B. (1989). "Lithium insertion into Fe₂(SO₄)₃ frameworks". Journal of Power Sources. 26 (3–4): 403–408. Bibcode:1989JPS....26..403M. doi:10.1016/0378-7753(89)80153-3.
44. Manthiram, A.; Goodenough, J. B. (1987). "Lithium insertion into Fe₂(MO₄)₃ frameworks: Comparison of M = W with M = Mo". Journal of Solid State Chemistry. 71 (2): 349–360. Bibcode:1987JSSCh..71..349M. doi: 10.1016/0022-4596(87)90242-8 .
45. A reflection on lithium-ion battery cathode chemistry. 2020. Nature Communications. 11/1, 9. A. Manthiram. doi: 10.1038/s41467-020-15355-0
46. Masquelier, Christian; Croguennec, Laurence (2013). "Polyanionic (Phosphates, Silicates, Sulfates) Frameworks as Electrode Materials for Rechargeable Li (or Na) Batteries". Chemical Reviews. 113 (8): 6552–6591. doi:10.1021/cr3001862. PMID   23742145.
47. Fong, R.; von Sacken, U.; Dahn, J.R. (1990). "Studies of lithium intercalation into carbons using nonaqueous electrochemical cells". J. Electrochem. Soc. 137 (7): 2009–2013. Bibcode:1990JElS..137.2009F. doi:10.1149/1.2086855.
48. Long Hard Road: The Lithium-Ion Battery and the Electric Car. 2022. C.J. Murray. ISBN 978-1-61249-762-4.
49. NONAQUEOUS ELECTROLYTIC LIQUID BATTERY. 1990-12-12. JP 32577891 A. M. Takahashi, S. Yoshimura, H. Watanabe, R. Oshita, S. Furukawa.
50. 1. Lithium ion rechargeable battery. 1990. 0. 9/209-17. T. Nagaura, K. Tozawa. https://jglobal.jst.go.jp/en/detail?JGLOBAL_ID=200902083334341504
51. The Development and Future of Lithium Ion Batteries. 2017. J Electrochem Soc. 164/1, A5019-A25. G.E. Blomgren. doi: 10.1149/2.0251701jes
52. "Keywords to understanding Sony Energy Devices – keyword 1991". Archived from the original on 4 March 2016.
53. "Yoshio Nishi". National Academy of Engineering . Retrieved 12 October 2019.
54. Before Li Ion Batteries. 2018. Chem Rev. 118/23, 11433-56. M. Winter, B. Barnett, K. Xu. doi: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.8b00422 .
55. Holusha, John (16 March 1994). "New York Times: New Battery By Bellcore Uses Lithium". The New York Times. Retrieved 27 June 2023.
56. W. Li, J.R. Dahn, D.S. Wainwright, Rechargeable Lithium Batteries with Aqueous Electrolytes, Science 264 (1994) 1115–1118, doi:http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1126/science.264.5162.1115.
57. Padhi, A.K., Naujundaswamy, K.S., Goodenough, J. B. (1996) "LiFePO
    _⁴: a novel cathode material for rechargeable batteries". Electrochemical Society Meeting Abstracts, 96-1, p. 73
58. Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 144 (4), p. 1188-1194
59. Dennis Normile, "Lithium-ion hits the road". Popular Science 248/4 (April 1996):45.
60. C. S. Johnson, J. T. Vaughey, M. M. Thackeray, T. E. Bofinger, and S. A. Hackney "Layered Lithium-Manganese Oxide Electrodes Derived from Rock-Salt LixMnyOz (x+y=z) Precursors" 194th Meeting of the Electrochemical Society, Boston, MA, Nov.1-6, (1998)
61. Chebiam, R. V.; Kannan, A. M.; Prado, F.; Manthiram, A. (2001). "Comparison of the chemical stability of the high energy density cathodes of lithium-ion batteries". Electrochemistry Communications. 3 (11): 624–627. doi:10.1016/S1388-2481(01)00232-6.
62. Chebiam, R. V.; Prado, F.; Manthiram, A. (2001). "Soft Chemistry Synthesis and Characterization of Layered Li_1−xNi_1−yCo_yO_2−δ (0 ≤ x ≤ 1 and 0 ≤ y ≤ 1)". Chemistry of Materials. 13 (9): 2951–2957. doi:10.1021/cm0102537.
63. Manthiram, Arumugam (2020). "A reflection on lithium-ion battery cathode chemistry". Nature Communications. 11 (1): 1550. Bibcode:2020NatCo..11.1550M. doi: 10.1038/s41467-020-15355-0 . PMC   7096394 . PMID   32214093.
64. US US6677082,Thackeray, M; Amine, K.& Kim, J. S.,"Lithium metal oxide electrodes for lithium cells and batteries" 
65. US US6680143,Thackeray, M; Amine, K.& Kim, J. S.,"Lithium metal oxide electrodes for lithium cells and batteries" 
66. US US6964828 B2,Lu, Zhonghua,"Cathode compositions for lithium-ion batteries" 
67. Chung, S. Y.; Bloking, J. T.; Chiang, Y. M. (2002). "Electronically conductive phospho-olivines as lithium storage electrodes". Nature Materials. 1 (2): 123–128. Bibcode:2002NatMa...1..123C. doi:10.1038/nmat732. PMID   12618828. S2CID   2741069.
68. "In search of the perfect battery" (PDF). The Economist. 6 March 2008. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 July 2011. Retrieved 11 May 2010.
69. Song, Y; Zavalij, PY; Whittingham, MS (2005). "ε-VOPO4: electrochemical synthesis and enhanced cathode behavior". Journal of the Electrochemical Society. 152 (4): A721–A728. Bibcode:2005JElS..152A.721S. doi:10.1149/1.1862265.
70. Lim, SC; Vaughey, JT; Harrison, WTA; Dussack, LL; Jacobson, AJ; Johnson, JW (1996). "Redox transformations of simple vanadium phosphates: the synthesis of ϵ-VOPO4". Solid State Ionics. 84 (3–4): 219–226. doi:10.1016/0167-2738(96)00007-0.
71. . BASF breaks ground for lithium-ion battery materials plant in Ohio, October 2009.
72. Monthly battery sales statistics Archived 2010-12-06 at the Wayback Machine . Machinery statistics released by the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry, March 2011.
73. "Lithium Ion Battery Pioneers Receive Draper Prize, Engineering’s Top Honor" Archived 3 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine , University of Texas, 6 January 2014
74. "At long last, new lithium battery tech actually arrives on the market (and might already be in your smartphone)". ExtremeTech. Retrieved 16 February 2014.
75. "NIMS Award Goes to Koichi Mizushima and Akira Yoshino". National Institute for Materials Science. 2016-09-14. Retrieved 9 April 2020.
76. Qi, Zhaoxiang; Koenig, Gary M. (16 August 2016). "High-Performance LiCoO₂Sub-Micrometer Materials from Scalable Microparticle Template Processing". ChemistrySelect . 1 (13): 3992–3999. doi:10.1002/slct.201600872.
77. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2019". Nobel Prize . Nobel Foundation. 2019. Retrieved 1 January 2020.
78. "Zero-cobalt Li-ion battery maker SPARKZ announces site for W Va gigafactory". Green Car Congress. Retrieved 2022-09-02.
79. Ziegler, Micah S.; Trancik, Jessika E. (2021-04-21). "Re-examining rates of lithium-ion battery technology improvement and cost decline". Energy & Environmental Science. 14 (4): 1635–1651. arXiv: 2007.13920 . doi: 10.1039/D0EE02681F . ISSN   1754-5706. S2CID   220830992.
80. "The price of batteries has declined by 97% in the last three decades". Our World in Data. Retrieved 2022-02-19.
81. Fisher, Thomas. "Will Tesla Alone Double Global Demand For Its Battery Cells? (Page 2)". Greencarreports.com. Archived from the original on 18 October 2017. Retrieved 16 February 2014.
82. "Reduced cell cost suggests the upcoming era of large capacity cells". EnergyTrend. 6 May 2013. Retrieved 16 February 2014.
83. Ziegler, Micah S.; Song, Juhyun; Trancik, Jessika E. (2021). "Determinants of lithium-ion battery technology cost decline". Energy & Environmental Science. 14 (12): 6074–6098. doi: 10.1039/D1EE01313K . hdl: 1721.1/145588 . ISSN   1754-5692. S2CID   244514877.
84. Ramsey, Mike (22 June 2015). "24M Technologies Launches Cheaper-to-Produce Lithium-Ion Cell" . Retrieved 15 December 2015.
85. "Chevy Volt EV: LG gearing up to 'mass-produce parts' for the car this month". 8 August 2016. Retrieved 2 August 2017.
86. Lai, Chun Sing; Jia, Youwei; Lai, Loi Lei; Xu, Zhao; McCulloch, Malcolm D.; Wong, Kit Po (October 2017). "A comprehensive review on large-scale photovoltaic system with applications of electrical energy storage". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 78: 439–451. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2017.04.078.
87. Wentker, Marc; Greenwood, Matthew; Leker, Jens (5 February 2019). "A Bottom-Up Approach to Lithium-Ion Battery Cost Modeling with a Focus on Cathode Active Materials". Energies. 12 (3): 504. doi: 10.3390/en12030504 .
88. "Volkswagen has reportedly reached a big milestone in battery costs that would heat up its competition with Tesla". Business Insider . 10 September 2019. Retrieved 29 September 2019.
89. Lai, Chun Sing; Locatelli, Giorgio; Pimm, Andrew; Tao, Yingshan; Li, Xuecong; Lai, Loi Lei (October 2019). "A financial model for lithium-ion storage in a photovoltaic and biogas energy system". Applied Energy. 251: 113179. Bibcode:2019ApEn..25113179L. doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.04.175 .
90. A review of the degradation mechanisms of NCM cathodes and corresponding mitigation strategies. 2023. J Energy Storage. 73/27. L. Britala, M. Marinaro, G. Kucinskis. doi: 10.1016/j.est.2023.108875.
91. Deign, Jason (17 October 2019). "How the Battery Sector Is Looking to Improve Lithium-Ion". www.greentechmedia.com. 811 is rapidly gaining ground on two other slightly less low-cobalt variants, NMC 532 and 622
92. "What do we know about next-generation NMC 811 cathode?". Research Interfaces. 27 February 2018. Industry has been improving NMC technology by steadily increasing the nickel content in each cathode generation (e.g. NMC 433, NMC 532, or the most recent NMC 622)
93. "State of Charge: EVs, Batteries and Battery Materials (Free Report from @AdamasIntel)". Adamas Intelligence. 20 September 2019. Archived from the original on 20 October 2019. Retrieved 30 October 2021.
94. "Lithium-ion batteries for mobility and stationary storage applications" (PDF). European Commission. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 July 2019. global lithium-ion battery production from about 20GWh (~6.5bn€) in 2010
95. "Switching From Lithium-Ion Could Be Harder Than You Think". 19 October 2017. Retrieved 20 October 2017.
96. National Blueprint for Lithium Batteries (PDF) (Report). U.S. Department of Energy. October 2020. p. 12.
97. Christophi, Helen (21 March 2017). "Judge Approves Battery Price-Fixing Settlement". Courthouse News Service.
98. "Panasonic and Its Subsidiary Sanyo Agree to Plead Guilty in Separate Price-Fixing Conspiracies Involving Automotive Parts and Battery Cells". www.justice.gov. 18 July 2013.
99. "Lithium Ion Batteries Antitrust - Frequently Asked Questions". www.batteriesdirectpurchaserantitrustsettlement.com.
100. "Lithium Ion Batteries Antitrust Litigation" (PDF). Lithium Ion Batteries Antitrust Litigation Direct Purchaser Class. 8 April 2014. Retrieved 2 September 2024.