Hoplocampa testudinea

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Hoplocampa testudinea
Hoplocampa testudinea.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hymenoptera
Suborder: Symphyta
Family: Tenthredinidae
Genus: Hoplocampa
Species:
H. testudinea
Binomial name
Hoplocampa testudinea
Klug, 1816

Hoplocampa testudinea, the apple sawfly or European apple sawfly, is a species of sawfly in the family Tenthredinidae. It is native to Europe but has been accidentally introduced into North America where it became invasive. [1] The larvae feed inside the developing fruits of the apple tree.

Contents

Description

The adult apple sawfly is up to 5 mm (0.2 in) long with a brownish-black head and thorax and a brown abdomen. The larva is a caterpillar-like grub with a brown head and white body, growing to about 10 mm (0.4 in) when fully developed. [2] It can be distinguished from the codling moth (Cydia pomonella) larva by being creamy-white, with seven pairs of abdominal legs, while the latter is pinkish-white and has five pairs. The sawfly larva is active in the fruits two or three weeks earlier in the season than the codling larva. [3]

Distribution

Native to Europe, this sawfly is widespread between 60° and 40° north latitude. Populations are also known in the western areas of the former USSR and in northern Turkey. It was first detected in North America on Long Island, New York, in 1939, and has since spread across the northeastern United States, and into Canada, reaching Quebec by 1979 and Ontario by 1987. [3] A population has been present on Vancouver Island, British Columbia, since being detected in 1940. [4]

Life cycle

Adult insects emerge in late spring at the time apple trees are in flower, and are attracted towards the open flowers on warm sunny days. Eggs are laid in slits cut just below the calyx, usually one egg per bloom. The eggs hatch about five days later, when 80% of the petals have fallen, and the newly hatched larvae make their way into the immature fruitlets, first burrowing under the skin and later tunnelling into the centre. As they grow larger, they tunnel outwards and move into an adjoining fruitlet, making a large entry hole which gets clogged with brown, sticky frass. When their development is complete and they have tunneled into several fruitlets, the damaged apples fall to the ground. The larvae make papery cocoons 10 to 25 cm (4 to 10 in) underground in which to overwinter. Pupation takes place in this cocoon in the spring but some individuals spend two winters underground. [5] [6] Controlled experiments in the late 1970s showed 17% – 26% of adults emerged a year after 250 larvae cocooned, while 1% – 9% emerged in the second year. Two solitary adults were recorded emerging the third year after cocooning. [4] The pupae are susceptible to desiccation and a number of fungi, such as Paecilomyces fumosoroseus . [4]

Damage

When a newly hatched larva burrows under the skin of the fruit it leaves a characteristic ribbon scar; if the larva dies before it tunnels to the core, the fruit can continue to grow and later be harvested. More seriously damaged fruitlets fall from the tree. Certain varieties of dessert apple such as Discovery and Worcester Pearmain are particularly susceptible. Pears are unaffected. Sticky traps can be used to catch adult sawflies to monitor the levels of attack and assess whether pesticides would be economical to apply. [7]

Control

In Europe, the apple sawfly has a number of predators and parasites which help to keep it under control. One of these is the parasitoid wasp Lathrolestes ensator which is a parasite of the larvae. In North America, these natural enemies are not present and the pest causes more significant damage to apple crops. In an attempt to alleviate this situation, L. ensator has been imported from Europe to help act as a control. [3]

Biological pest control has been investigated using the entomogenous nematodes Steinernema carpocapsae , Steinernema feltiae and Heterorhabditis bacteriophora . These were effective in the laboratory when used as a foliar spray, and in a field trial as a ground drench against the larvae. These treatments may also control plum curculio (Conotrachelus nenuphar) as part of an integrated pest management programme. [8] Research has shown that quassin and neoquassin, extracted from Quassia amara , can provide control of H. testudinea in organic agriculture; commercial formulations are used in Germany and Switzerland, but are expensive. [9] Several species of ascomycote entomopathogenic fungi have also been used as control agents. Metarhizium anisopliae (sensulato), Beauveria bassiana (sensulato), Isaria farinosa , Isaria fumosorosea , Aspergillus flavus and Lecanicillium lecanii have all been shown to result in high mortality rates of larvae at the time the apples fall to the soil. [10] In Swedish and Danish orchards, Metarhizium brunneum is one of the most common entomopathogenic fungi species.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sawfly</span> Suborder of insects

Sawflies are the insects of the suborder Symphyta within the order Hymenoptera, alongside ants, bees, and wasps. The common name comes from the saw-like appearance of the ovipositor, which the females use to cut into the plants where they lay their eggs. The name is associated especially with the Tenthredinoidea, by far the largest superfamily in the suborder, with about 7,000 known species; in the entire suborder, there are 8,000 described species in more than 800 genera. Symphyta is paraphyletic, consisting of several basal groups within the order Hymenoptera, each one rooted inside the previous group, ending with the Apocrita which are not sawflies.

<i>Beauveria bassiana</i> Species of fungus

Beauveria bassiana is a fungus that grows naturally in soils throughout the world and acts as a parasite on various arthropod species, causing white muscardine disease; it thus belongs to the group of entomopathogenic fungi. It is used as a biological insecticide to control a number of pests, including termites, thrips, whiteflies, aphids and various beetles. Its use in the control of bedbugs and malaria-transmitting mosquitos is under investigation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Codling moth</span> Species of moth that feeds on fruit (Cydia pomonella)

The codling moth is a member of the Lepidopteran family Tortricidae. They are major pests to agricultural crops, mainly fruits such as apples and pears, and a codling moth larva is often called an "apple worm". Because the larvae are not able to feed on leaves, they are highly dependent on fruits as a food source and thus have a significant impact on crops. The caterpillars bore into fruit and stop it from growing, which leads to premature ripening. Various means of control, including chemical, biological, and preventive, have been implemented. This moth has a widespread distribution, being found on six continents. Adaptive behavior such as diapause and multiple generations per breeding season have allowed this moth to persist even during years of bad climatic conditions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vine weevil</span> Species of beetle

The black vine weevil is an insect native to Europe but common in North America as well. It is a pest of many garden plants.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Entomopathogenic fungus</span> Fungus that can act as a parasite of insects

An entomopathogenic fungus is a fungus that can kill or seriously disable insects.

<i>Metarhizium robertsii</i> Species of fungus

Metarhizium robertsii – formerly known as M. anisopliae, and even earlier as Entomophthora anisopliae (basionym) – is a fungus that grows naturally in soils throughout the world and causes disease in various insects by acting as a parasitoid. Ilya I. Mechnikov named it after the insect species from which it was originally isolated – the beetle Anisoplia austriaca. It is a mitosporic fungus with asexual reproduction, which was formerly classified in the form class Hyphomycetes of the phylum Deuteromycota.

<i>Beauveria</i> Genus of fungi

Beauveria is a genus of asexually-reproducing fungi allied with the ascomycete family Cordycipitaceae. Its several species are typically insect pathogens. The sexual states (teleomorphs) of Beauveria species, where known, are species of Cordyceps.

<i>Curculio nucum</i> Species of beetle

Curculio nucum, the nut weevil, is a medium-sized beetle, with an especially elongated snout, characteristic of the Curculionini tribe of the weevil family (Curculionidae). Its larvae develop in hazel nuts Corylus avellana, being a serious pest in hazelnut orchards. It occurs in most of Europe, from south Sweden, Finland and Great Britain to the Mediterranean.

<i>Synanthedon myopaeformis</i> Species of moth

Synanthedon myopaeformis is a moth of the family Sesiidae and the order Lepidoptera. In Europe it is known as the red-belted clearwing and in North America as the apple clearwing moth. The larvae create galleries under the bark of fruit trees, especially old trees with damaged trunks. During this process, the larvae cause significant damage to host trees. Particular attention has been paid to the damage they cause to apple trees. Their status as a pest of apple orchards has led to many research projects aimed at controlling populations of the moth. This moth is native to Europe, the Near East and North Africa. Recently, the moth was introduced into North America, being first detected in Canada in 2005. There are several organisms that threaten the larvae, including parasitoids, nematodes, and bacteria.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Muscardine</span> Fungal disease of insects

Muscardine is a disease of insects. It is caused by many species of entomopathogenic fungus. Many muscardines are known for affecting silkworms. Muscardine may also be called calcino.

<i>Hoplocampa</i> Genus of sawflies

Hoplocampa is a genus of hymenopteran sawfly in the family Tenthredinidae.

<i>Curculio elephas</i> Species of beetle

Curculio elephas is a species of beetle in the family Curculionidae, the true weevils. It is known commonly as the chestnut weevil. It is a serious pest of chestnut in Europe.

<i>Diprion pini</i> Species of sawfly

Diprion pini, the common pine sawfly, is a sawfly species in the family Diprionidae. It is a serious pest of economic forestry, capable of defoliating large areas of pine forest. It occurs throughout Europe and Russia.

Lathrolestes ensator is a species of wasp in the family Ichneumonidae. it is a parasitoid of the apple sawfly Hoplocampa testudinea. Both insects are native to Europe, but the sawfly has been accidentally introduced into North America where it has become established. The larvae of the sawfly tunnel into developing apple fruitlets which later fall to the ground, where the larvae continue their development. The wasp parasitises the larvae and has been released in North America as part of a biological control programme for the sawfly.

Isaria fumosorosea is an entomopathogenic fungus, formerly known as Paecilomyces fumosoroseus. It shows promise as a biological pesticide with an extensive host range.

Lathrolestes luteolator is a species of wasp in the family Ichneumonidae. it is native to North America and is a parasitoid of various species of sawfly larvae. In the 1990s, it started to parasitise the larvae of the invasive amber-marked birch leaf miner in Alberta. When this pest spread to Alaska, the wasp was used in biological pest control.

Tariq Butt is an entomologist in the UK, he is Professor of Biosciences at Swansea University in Wales.

Holotrichia serrata, commonly known as the sugarcane white grub, or cockchafer grub, is a species of dung beetle found in India, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka.

<i>Odoiporus longicollis</i> Species of beetle

Odoiporus longicollis, commonly known as banana stem weevil or banana pseudostem borer, is a species of weevil found in South Asia and South East Asia.

Donald W. Roberts was an American insect pathologist and one of the originators of that field. He was especially known for research into biological pest control of Lepidoptera by Metarhizium but also Beauveria bassiana. He was a Research Professor Emeritus in the Biology Department of Utah State University.

References

  1. ↑ Langor, David; Sweeney, Jon (2009). Ecological Impacts of Non-Native Invertebrates and Fungi on Terrestrial Ecosystems. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 14. ISBN   978-1-4020-9680-8.
  2. ↑ "Apple sawfly". Royal Horticultural Society. Retrieved 13 May 2017.
  3. 1 2 3 "European apple sawfly". Ontario: Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs. Retrieved 14 May 2017.
  4. 1 2 3 Zijp, J. P.; Blommers, L. (1993). "Lathrolestes ensator, a parasitoid of the apple sawfly". Proceedings of the Section Experimental and Applied Entomology of the Netherlands Entomological Society. 4: 237–242.
  5. ↑ David V. Alford (2008). Pest and Disease Management Handbook. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 262–263. ISBN   978-0-470-68019-3.
  6. ↑ Mason, Peter G; Gillespie, David R (2013). Biological Control Programmes in Canada 2001–2012. CABI. pp. 199–201. ISBN   978-1-78064-257-4.
  7. ↑ "Apple Sawfly (Hoplocampa testudinea (Klug))". Apple Best Practice Guide. DEFRA. Retrieved 14 May 2017.
  8. ↑ Vincent, C.; Bélair, G. (1992). "Biocontrol of the apple sawfly, Hoplocampa testudinea, with entomogenous nematodes". Entemophaga. 37 (4): 575–582. doi:10.1007/BF02372327. S2CID   37182521.
  9. ↑ Psota, V.; J. Ourednickova; V. Falta (2010). "Control of Hoplocampa testudinea using the extract from Quassia amara in organic apple growing" (PDF). Horticultural Science. 37 (4): 139–144. doi:10.17221/76/2009-HORTSCI.
  10. ↑ Swiergiel, W.; Meyling, N. V.; Porcel, M.; Rämert, B. (2016). "Soil application of Beauveria bassiana GHA against apple sawfly, Hoplocampa testudinea (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae): Field mortality and fungal persistence". Insect Science. 23 (6): 854–868. doi: 10.1111/1744-7917.12233 . PMID   25959579.
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