Lake Kivu

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Lake Kivu
LakeKivu satellite.jpg
Satellite image of Lake Kivu courtesy of NASA.
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Lake Kivu
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Lake Kivu
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Lake Kivu
Coordinates 2°0′S29°0′E / 2.000°S 29.000°E / -2.000; 29.000
Type Rift Valley lakes, meromictic, limnically active lake
Primary outflows Ruzizi River
Catchment area 2,700 km2 (1,000 sq mi)
Basin  countries Rwanda, Democratic Republic of the Congo
Max. length89 km (55 mi) [1]
Max. width48 km (30 mi) [1]
Surface area2,700 km2 (1,040 sq mi) [1]
Average depth240 m (787 ft)
Max. depth480 m (1,575 ft)
Water volume648 km3 (155 cu mi)
Surface elevation1,460 m (4,790 ft)
Islands Idjwi
Settlements Goma, Congo
Bukavu, Congo
Kibuye, Rwanda
Cyangugu, Rwanda

Lake Kivu is one of the African Great Lakes. [2] It lies on the border between the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Rwanda, and is in the Albertine Rift, the western branch of the East African Rift. [3] Lake Kivu empties into the Ruzizi River, which flows southwards into Lake Tanganyika. [4] In 1894, German officer and colonial ruler Gustav Adolf von Götzen was the first European to discover the lake.

Contents

Kivu lake shoreline at Gisenyi, Rwanda Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg
Kivu lake shoreline at Gisenyi, Rwanda

In the past, Lake Kivu drained toward the north, contributing to the White Nile. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, volcanic activity blocked Lake Kivu's outlet to the watershed of the Nile. [5] The volcanism produced mountains, including the Virungas, which rose between Lake Kivu and Lake Edward, to the north. [6] Water from Lake Kivu was then forced south down the Ruzizi. This, in turn, raised the level of Lake Tanganyika, which overflowed down the Lukuga River. [5]

Lake Kivu is one of three lakes in the world, along with Lake Nyos and Lake Monoun, that undergo limnic eruptions (where overturn of deepwater stratified layers releases dissolved carbon dioxide (CO2)). The lake's bottom also contains methane (CH4), meaning if a limnic eruption occurs, the lives of the two million people living nearby would be in danger.

Geography

Lake Kivu is approximately 42 km (26 mi) long and 50 km (31 mi) at its widest. [2] Its irregular shape makes measuring its precise surface area difficult; it has been estimated to cover a total surface area of some 2,700 km2 (1,040 sq mi), making it Africa's eighth largest lake. [4] The surface of the lake sits at a height of 1,460 metres (4,790 ft) above sea level. This lake has a chance of suffering a limnic eruption every 1000 years. [2] The lake has a maximum depth of 475 m (1,558 ft) and a mean depth of 220 m (722 ft), making it the world's twentieth deepest lake by maximum depth, and the thirteenth deepest by mean depth. [2]

Some 1,370 square kilometres (529 sq mi) or 58 percent of the lake's waters lie within DRC borders. [4]

The lake bed sits upon a rift valley that is slowly being pulled apart, causing volcanic activity in the area.

The world's tenth-largest island in a lake, Idjwi, lies in Lake Kivu. Settlements on the lake's shore include Bukavu, Kabare, Kalehe, Sake and Goma in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Gisenyi, Kibuye, and Cyangugu in Rwanda.

Chemistry

Lake Kivu is a fresh water lake and, along with Cameroonian Lake Nyos and Lake Monoun, is one of three that are known to undergo limnic eruptions (where overturn of deepwater stratified layers releases dissolved carbon dioxide). Around the lake, geologists [7] [ verification needed ] found evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, presumably caused by outgassing events. The trigger for lake overturns in Lake Kivu is unknown, but volcanic activity and changes in climate are both suspected. [8] The gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes is unique to each lake. In Lake Kivu's case, it includes methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2), as a result of lake water interaction with volcanic hot springs. [9]

The amount of methane contained at the bottom of the lake is estimated to be 65 cubic kilometres (16 cu mi). If burned in a modern combined-cycle generating plant, that amount of methane would generate around 40,000 megawatts for an entire year, which is equivalent to the power output of six Grand Coulee Dams operating at peak springtime power. The lake also holds an estimated 256 cubic kilometres (61 cu mi) of carbon dioxide which, if released in an eruption event, could suffocate all of the inhabitants of the lakeshore. [10] The water temperature is 24 °C (75 °F), and the pH is about 7 in the anoxic region, and around 9 in the oxygenated waters. [11] The methane is reported to be produced by microbial reduction of the volcanic CO2. [12] A future overturn and gas release from the deep waters of Lake Kivu would result in catastrophe, dwarfing the historically documented lake overturns at the much smaller Lakes Nyos and Monoun. The lives of the approximately two million people who live in the lake basin area would be threatened. [9]

Cores from the Bukavu Bay area of the lake reveal that the bottom has layered deposits of the rare mineral monohydrocalcite interlaid with diatoms, on top of sapropelic sediments with high pyrite content. These are found at three different intervals. The sapropelic layers are believed to be related to hydrothermal discharge and the diatoms to a bloom which reduced the carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite. [13]

Scientists hypothesize that sufficient volcanic interaction with the lake's bottom water that has high gas concentrations would heat water, force the methane out of the water, spark a methane explosion, and trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though the entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during the January 2002 eruption had no effect. [14] [15] The carbon dioxide would then suffocate large numbers of people in the lake basin as the gases roll off the lake surface. It is also possible that the lake could spawn lake tsunamis as gas explodes out of it. [16] [17] [18]

The risk posed by Lake Kivu began to be understood during the analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Lake Kivu's methane was originally thought to be merely a cheap natural resource for export, and for the generation of cheap power. Once the mechanisms that caused lake overturns began to be understood, so did awareness of the risk the lake posed to the local population.

An experimental vent pipe was installed at Lake Nyos in 2001 to remove gas from the deep water, but such a solution for the much larger Lake Kivu would be considerably more expensive. The approximately 510 million metric tons (500×10^6 long tons) of carbon dioxide in the lake is a little under 2 percent of the amount released annually by human fossil fuel burning. Therefore, the process of releasing it could potentially have costs beyond simply building and operating the system.

This problem associated with the prevalence of methane is that of mazuku, the Swahili term "evil wind" for the outgassing of methane and carbon dioxide that kills people and animals, and can even kill vegetation when in high enough concentration.

Methane extraction

A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda. Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg
A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.

Lake Kivu has recently been found to contain approximately 55 billion m3 (1.9 trillion cu ft) of dissolved biogas at a depth of 300 metres (1,000 ft). Until 2004, extraction of the gas was done on a small scale, with the extracted gas being used to run boilers at the Bralirwa brewery in Gisenyi. [19] [20] As far as large-scale exploitation of this resource is concerned, the Rwandan government has negotiated with a number of parties to produce methane from the lake.

In 2011 ContourGlobal, a UK-based energy company focused on emerging markets, secured project financing to initiate a large-scale methane extraction project. The project is run through a local Rwandan entity called KivuWatt, using an offshore barge platform to extract, separate, and clean the gasses obtained from the lake bed before pumping purified methane via an underwater pipeline to onshore gas engines. Stage one of the project, powering three "gensets" along the lake shore and supplying 26 MW of electricity to the local grid, has since been completed. The next phase aims to deploy nine additional gensets at 75 MW to create a total capacity of 101 MW. [21]

In addition, Symbion Power Lake Kivu Limited was awarded a Concession and Power Producing Agreement (PPA) in 2015, to produce 50 MW of power using Lake Kivu methane. The project is expected to commence construction in 2019, with first power (Phase 1 - 14 MW) to be produced in first quarter 2020. The plant will be fully operational in 2021. [22] [23] [ needs update ]

Symbion Power has purchased another concession for a further 25 MW and are currently negotiating a PPA with the Rwanda Electricity Group which may see 8 MW of power dispatched to the Grid six months after the PPA has been signed. This concession is on the site of the original pilot plant known as KP1.[ needs update ]

In addition to managing gas extraction, KivuWatt will also manage the electrical generation plants and on-sell the electrical power to the Rwandan government under the terms of a long-term Power Purchase Agreement (PPA). This allows KivuWatt to control a vertically integrated energy offering from point of extraction to point of sale into the local grid. Extraction is said to be cost-effective and relatively simple because once the gas-rich water is pumped up, the dissolved gases (primarily carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide and methane) begin to bubble out as the water pressure gets lower. This project is expected to increase Rwanda's energy generation capability by as much as 20 times, and will enable Rwanda to sell electricity to neighbouring African countries. [20] The firm was awarded the 2011 Africa Power deal of the year for innovation in the financing arrangements it obtained from various sources for the KivuWatt project. [24] [25] The $200 million power plant was operating at 26 MW in 2016. [26]

Biology and fisheries

Fishing boats on Lake Kivu, 2009 Lake Kivu, boats.jpg
Fishing boats on Lake Kivu, 2009
Paradis Malahide Island within the lake An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km2. Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg
Paradis Malahide Island within the lake
The sky reflected on Lake Kivu View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg
The sky reflected on Lake Kivu

The fish fauna in Lake Kivu is relatively poor with 28 described species, including four introduced species. [27] The natives are the Lake Rukwa minnow (Raiamas moorii), four species of barb (ripon barbel, Barbus altianalis, East African red-finned barb, Enteromius apleurogramma, redspot barb, E. kerstenii and Pellegrin's barb, E. pellegrini), an Amphilius catfish, two Clarias catfish ( C. liocephalus and C. gariepinus ), Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and 15 endemic Haplochromis cichlids. [27] Another c. 20 possibly undescribed species of cichlids are known from the lake. [28] The introduced species are three cichlids, the longfin tilapia (Oreochromis macrochir), blue-spotted tilapia (O. leucostictus) and redbreast tilapia (Coptodon rendalli), and a clupeid, the Lake Tanganyika sardine (Limnothrissa miodon) [27] [29] [30] The sardine is referred to locally as 'Ndagala' or 'Isambaza'. [31]

The exploitable stock of the Lake Tanganyika sardine was estimated at 2,000–4,000 metric tons (2,000–3,900 long tons) per year. [32] It was introduced to Lake Kivu in late 1959 by the Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart. [29] [30] An attempt to introduce the similar Lake Tanganyika sprat (Stolothrissa tanganicae) at the same time was unsuccessful. [31]

At present, Lake Kivu is the sole natural lake in which L. miodon, a sardine originally restricted to Lake Tanganyika, has been introduced initially to fill an empty niche. Prior to the introduction, no planktivorous fish was present in the pelagic waters of Lake Kivu. In the early 1990s, the number of fishers on the lake was 6,563, of which 3,027 were associated with the pelagic fishery and 3,536 with the traditional fishery. The widespread armed conflict in the surrounding region from the mid-1990s resulted in a decline in the fisheries harvest. [33]

Following this introduction, the sardine has gained substantial economic and nutritional importance for the lakeside human population but from an ecosystem standpoint, the introduction of planktivorous fish may result in important modifications of plankton community structure. Recent observations showed the disappearance during the last decades of a large grazer, Daphnia curvirostris , and the dominance of mesozooplankton community by three species of cyclopoid copepod: Thermocyclops consimilis , Mesocyclops aequatorialis and Tropocyclops confinis . [34] [35]

The first comprehensive phytoplankton survey was released in 2006. [36] With an annual average chlorophyll a in the mixed layer of 2.2 mg m−3 and low nutrient levels in the euphotic zone, the lake is clearly oligotrophic. Diatoms are the dominant group in the lake, particularly during the dry season episodes of deep mixing. During the rainy season, the stratified water column, with high light and lower nutrient availability, favour dominance of cyanobacteria with high numbers of phototrophic picoplankton. [36] [37] [38] [39] The actual primary production is 0.71 g C m−2 d−1 (≈ 260 g C m−2 a−1). [40]

A study of evolutionary genetics showed that the cichlids from lakes in northern Virunga (e.g., Edward, George, Victoria) would have evolved in a "proto-lake Kivu", much older than the intense volcanic activity (20,000-25,000 years ago) which cut the connection. [41] The elevation of the mountains west of the lake (which is currently the Kahuzi-Biega National Park, one of the largest reserves of eastern lowland (or Grauer's) gorillas in the world), combined with the elevation of the eastern rift (located in eastern Rwanda) would be responsible for the drainage of water from central Rwanda in the actual Lake Kivu. This concept of "proto-lake Kivu" was challenged by lack of consistent geological evidence, [42] although the cichlid's molecular clock suggests the existence of a lake much older than the commonly cited 15,000 years.

Lake Kivu is the home of four species of freshwater crab, including two non-endemics ( Potamonautes lirrangensis and P. mutandensis ) and two endemics ( P. bourgaultae and P. idjwiensis ). [43] Among Rift Valley lakes, Lake Tanganyika and Lake Victoria are the only other with endemic freshwater crabs. [43] [44]

Illegal fishing

In 2018, over 400 cases of potential illegal fishing were recorded on Lake Kivu. According to the Animal Research and Technology Transfer at the Rwanda Agricultural Board, fish production in Kivu Lake dropped from 24 199 tonnes in the 2017–2018 fishing season to 16 194 tonnes in 2019–2020, [45] which Deputy Director Solange Uwituze attributed to fishing methods that affect fish reproduction. Between May and July 2020, Rwanda Police Marine Unit operations reported 27 cases including 10 arrested poachers for illegal fishing on the lake. [46] [47]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lake Tanganyika</span> Rift lake in east-central Africa

Lake Tanganyika is an African Great Lake. It is the second-largest freshwater lake by volume and the second deepest, in both cases after Lake Baikal in Siberia. It is the world's longest freshwater lake. The lake is shared among four countries—Tanzania, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Burundi, and Zambia—with Tanzania (46%) and the DRC (40%) possessing the majority of the lake. It drains into the Congo River system and ultimately into the Atlantic Ocean.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lake Nyos</span> Crater lake in the Northwest Region of Cameroon

Lake Nyos is a crater lake in the Northwest Region of Cameroon, located about 315 km (196 mi) northwest of Yaoundé, the capital. Nyos is a deep lake high on the flank of an inactive volcano in the Oku volcanic plain along the Cameroon line of volcanic activity. A volcanic dam impounds the lake waters.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">African Great Lakes</span> Series of lakes in the Rift Valley

The African Great Lakes are a series of lakes constituting the part of the Rift Valley lakes in and around the East African Rift. The series includes Lake Victoria, the second-largest freshwater lake in the world by area; Lake Tanganyika, the world's second-largest freshwater lake by volume and depth; Lake Malawi, the world's eighth-largest freshwater lake by area; and Lake Turkana, the world's largest permanent desert lake and the world's largest alkaline lake. Collectively, they contain 31,000 km3 (7,400 cu mi) of water, which is more than either Lake Baikal or the North American Great Lakes. This total constitutes about 25% of the planet's unfrozen surface fresh water. The large rift lakes of Africa are the ancient home of great biodiversity, and 10% of the world's fish species live in this region.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mount Nyiragongo</span> Active volcano in the Democratic Republic of the Congo

Mount Nyiragongo is an active stratovolcano with an elevation of 3,470 m (11,385 ft) in the Virunga Mountains associated with the Albertine Rift. It is located inside Virunga National Park, in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, about 12 km (7.5 mi) north of the town of Goma and Lake Kivu and just west of the border with Rwanda. The main crater is about two kilometres (1 mi) wide and usually contains a lava lake. The crater presently has two distinct cooled lava benches within the crater walls – one at about 3,175 m (10,417 ft) and a lower one at about 2,975 m (9,760 ft).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rift Valley lakes</span> Group of lakes in the East African Rift

The Rift Valley lakes are a series of lakes in the East African Rift valley that runs through eastern Africa from Ethiopia in the north to Malawi in the south, and includes the African Great Lakes in the south. These include some of the world's oldest lakes, deepest lakes, largest lakes by area, and largest lakes by volume. Many are freshwater ecoregions of great biodiversity, while others are alkaline "soda lakes" supporting highly specialised organisms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Meromictic lake</span> Permanently stratified lake with layers of water that do not intermix

A meromictic lake is a lake which has layers of water that do not intermix. In ordinary, holomictic lakes, at least once each year, there is a physical mixing of the surface and the deep waters.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kivu</span> Region in the Democratic Republic of the Congo

Kivu was the name for a large "region" in the Democratic Republic of the Congo under the rule of Mobutu Sese Seko that bordered Lake Kivu. It included three "Sub-Regions" : Nord-Kivu, Sud-Kivu and Maniema, corresponding to the three current provinces created in 1986. The capital of the Kivu Region was in Bukavu, and the capitals of the three Sub-Regions were in Goma, Uvira and Kindu.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ruzizi River</span> River in Central Africa

The Ruzizi is a river, 117 kilometres (73 mi) long, that flows from Lake Kivu to Lake Tanganyika in Central Africa, descending from about 1,500 metres (4,900 ft) to about 770 metres (2,530 ft) above sea level over its length. The steepest gradients occur over the first 40 kilometres (25 mi), where hydroelectric dams have been built. Further downstream, the Ruzizi Plain, the floor of the Western Rift Valley, has gentle hills, and the river flows into Lake Tanganyika through a delta, with one or two small channels splitting off from the main channel.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Limnic eruption</span> Type of natural disaster

A limnic eruption, also known as a lake overturn, is a very rare type of natural hazard in which dissolved carbon dioxide suddenly erupts from deep lake waters, forming a gas cloud capable of asphyxiating wildlife, livestock, and humans. Scientists believe earthquakes, volcanic activity, and other explosive events can serve as triggers for limnic eruptions as the rising CO2 displaces water. Lakes in which such activity occurs are referred to as limnically active lakes or exploding lakes. Some features of limnically active lakes include:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lake Monoun</span> Lake in West Province, Cameroon

Lake Monoun is a crater lake (maar) in West Province, Cameroon, that lies in the Oku Volcanic Field. On August 15, 1984, a limnic eruption occurred at the lake, which resulted in the release of a large amount of carbon dioxide that killed 37 people. At first, the deaths remained unexplained, and causes such as terrorism were suspected. Further investigation and a similar event two years later at Lake Nyos led to the currently accepted explanation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mazuku</span> Pocket of carbon dioxide–rich air that can be lethal

Mazuku (Swahili for "evil winds") are pockets of dry, cold carbon dioxide-rich gases released from vents or fissures in volcanically and tectonically active areas, and mixed with dispersed atmospheric air and accumulating in typically low-lying areas. Since CO2 is ~1.5 times heavier than air, it tends to flow downhill, hugging the ground like a low fog and gather in enclosed spaces with poor ventilation, such as lava tubes, ditches, depressions, caves, house basements or in the stratified water layers of meromictic lakes if a water column exists. In high concentrations (≥1vol.%), they can pose a deadly risk to both humans and animals in the surrounding area because they are undetectable by olfactory or visual senses in most conditions.

The dikume is a critically endangered species of fish in the family Cichlidae. It is endemic to Lake Barombi Mbo in western Cameroon.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lake Tanganyika sardine</span> Species of fish

The Lake Tanganyika sardine is a species of freshwater ray-finned fish in the family Dorosomatidae which was endemic to Lake Tanganyika but which has now been introduced to other lakes in Africa as a food source. It is one of two species within the genus Limnothrissa, the other being the Lake Mweru endemic, L. strappersi. This species and the Lake Tanganyika sprat are known collectively as kapenta.

<i>Coptodon flava</i> Species of fish

Coptodon flava is a critically endangered species of fish in the cichlid family. It is endemic to Lake Bermin in Cameroon. It is threatened by pollution and sedimentation from human activities, and potentially also by large emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the lake's bottom (compare Lake Nyos), although Bermin is too shallow to contain very high amounts of this gas.

Coptodon imbriferna is a critically endangered species of fish in the cichlid family. It is endemic to Lake Bermin in Cameroon. It is threatened by pollution and sedimentation from human activities, and potentially also by large emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the lake's bottom (compare Lake Nyos), although Bermin is too shallow to contain very high amounts of this gas.

A tsunami is a series of large water waves caused by the displacement of a large volume within a body of water, often caused by earthquakes, or similar events. This may occur in lakes as well as oceans, presenting threats to both fishermen and shoreside inhabitants. Because they are generated by a near field source region, tsunamis generated in lakes and reservoirs result in a decreased amount of warning time.

Lake Ejagham is a small lake near Eyumodjock in the Southwest Region of Cameroon. Unlike many other lakes in the region, it is not a volcanic lake, but is likely a solution basin formed by groundwater during the last Ice Age. This highly isolated lake is roughly oval in shape, lacks an inflow, but has an outflow into the Munaya River. The outflow is impassable to most fishes because of a waterfall.

Coptodon fusiforme is a species of fish in the cichlid family, endemic to Lake Ejagham in western Cameroon. It was only scientifically described in 2010, so has not been rated by the IUCN, but it likely faces the same risks as the critically endangered C. deckerti, which is threatened by pollution and sedimentation from human activities, a catfish from the genus Parauchenoglanis that has been introduced to the lake, and potentially also by large emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the lake's bottom (compare Lake Nyos), although Ejagham is too shallow to contain very high amounts of this gas.

Coptodon ejagham is a species of fish in the cichlid family. It is endemic to Lake Ejagham in western Cameroon. It was only scientifically described in 2010 and has therefore not been rated by the IUCN, but it likely faces the same risks as the critically endangered C. deckerti, which is threatened by pollution and sedimentation from human activities, a catfish from the genus Parauchenoglanis that has been introduced to the lake, and potentially also by large emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the lake's bottom (compare Lake Nyos), although Ejagham is too shallow to contain very high amounts of this gas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lake Nyos disaster</span> 1986 limnic eruption in Cameroon

On 21 August 1986, a limnic eruption at Lake Nyos in northwestern Cameroon killed 1,746 people and 3,500 livestock.

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  32. ↑ Marshall, B. E. (1991). "Seasonal and annual variations in the abundance of the clupeid Limnothrissa miodon in lake Kivu". Journal of Fish Biology. 39 (5): 641–648. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.1991.tb04394.x.
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  34. ↑ Isumbisho, M (2006). Zooplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa). Belgium: University of Namur. ISBN   978-2-87037-534-1.
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  36. 1 2 Sarmento, H. (2006). Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) (PDF). Belgium: University of Namur. ISBN   978-2-87037-532-7. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-01-17. Retrieved 2011-04-23.
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  38. ↑ Sarmento, H.; et al. (2008). "Abundance and distribution of picoplankton in tropical, oligotrophic Lake Kivu, eastern Africa" (PDF). Freshwater Biology. 53 (4): 756–771. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2427.2007.01939.x.
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  40. ↑ Sarmento, H.; et al. (2009). "Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (eastern Africa): biomass, production and elemental ratios" (PDF). International Association of Theoretical and Applied Limnology, Vol 30, Pt 5, Proceedings. 30: 709–713.
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  44. ↑ Cumberlidge, N., and P.F. Clark (2017). Description of three new species of Potamonautes MacLeay, 1838 from the Lake Victoria region in southern Uganda, East Africa (Brachyura: Potamoidea: Potamonautidae). European Journal of Taxonomy 371: 1–19. doi : 10.5852/ejt.2017.371
  45. ↑ "Illicit fishing threatens biodiversity in Lake Kivu". 26 January 2021. Retrieved 2023-06-23.
  46. ↑ ENACTAfrica.org (2022-01-31). "Tipping the scales of illicit fishing in Lake Kivu". ENACT Africa. Retrieved 2022-03-24.
  47. ↑ ISSAfrica.org (2022-02-02). "Tipping the scales of illicit fishing in Lake Kivu". ISS Africa. Retrieved 2022-03-24.
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