Goma is the capital and largest city of the North Kivu Province in the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is located on the northern shore of Lake Kivu and shares borders with Bukumu Chiefdom to the north, Rwanda to the east and Masisi Territory to the west. The city lies in the Albertine Rift, the western branch of the East African Rift, and is only 13–18km (8.1–11.2mi) south of the active volcano Mount Nyiragongo. With an approximate area of 75.72km2 (29.24sqmi), the city has an estimated population of nearly 2 million people according to the 2022 census.
The recent history of Goma has been dominated by the volcano and the Rwandan genocide of 1994, which in turn fuelled the First and Second Congo Wars. The aftermath of these events was still having effects on the city and its surroundings in 2010. The city was captured by rebels of the March 23 Movement during the M23 rebellion in late 2012, but it has since been retaken by government forces.
The predominant terrain of Goma is volcanic, with only a small portion consisting of slightly sandy soil.[7] The surface is covered with basalt flows, creating a skeletal soil profile. Hills such as Mount Goma, Mount Ndosho, Mount Mugunga, and Mount Busara punctuate the landscape, although some areas are relatively flat.[9] Mount Goma, an extinct volcano, lies at the public port of Goma. This hill was formed during ancient volcanic eruptions and marks the southeastern limit of the plain.[9]
The vegetation in Goma is predominantly savannah interspersed with bushes.[9] The city's aesthetic appeal is further enhanced by artificial greenery, including trees planted by landowners, which mitigates temperature fluctuations. Hydrographically, Goma benefits from its southern proximity to Lake Kivu and smaller lakes such as Green Lake in Mugunga and Black Lake in Buhimba to the west.[9]
Source 1: Climate-Data.org, altitude: 1,531 metres or 5,023 feet[10]
Source 2: Weather2Travel for rainy days and sunshine[11]
Administrative division
Goma spreads over an approximate area of 75.72km2 (29.24sqmi) and has an estimated population of nearly 2 million people according to the 2022 census.[12] In 1984, its population was estimated at 80,000.[13] The city is administratively divided into two urban municipalities: Goma and Karisimbi, which are further subdivided into 18 quarters, colloquially recognized as "neighborhoods" in the English lexicon.[12] Goma's administrative division was established through the enactment of Ordinance Law No. 48-127 of 22 May 1989, which delineated the city's communes (municipalities) and quartiers (quarters).[9] The city is divided into two communes, each of which is further segmented into quartiers.[14]
In response to concerns related to population density, administrative adjustments were made that resulted in the creation of new quartiers. For instance, Katoyi quartier was divided into Kasika and Katoyi quartiers, while Mabanga quartier was divided into Mabanga North and Mabanga South quartiers.[14] Parenthetically, the provincial authorities granted permission for the establishment of a new quartier, Bujovu, within the commune of Karisimbi, comprising cells from the Majengo and Virunga quartiers, namely Byahi and Tyazo cells.[14]
The village of Ngoma was a port for lake traffic and a crossroads for the overland trade routes between Central Africa and the Indian Ocean. In 1894, the explorer Gustav Adolf von Götzen, following the footsteps of an earlier missionary, was traveling to Rwanda from the eastern coast of Africa and passed through the village, which he recorded as Goma.[15][16] In 1906, officers of the Congo Free State established Goma post opposite Gisenyi as a military outpost to oversee maritime activities on Lake Kivu, which later transformed into a civil status office.[17][18] Around 1930, the Goma precinct accommodated camps for laborers of the Eastern Railway (CFE), initially sited along Lake Kivu's eastern shores.[18] By the mid-20th century, Goma had become an essential hub, serving as the endpoint of the vici-Goma network and a port for the transshipment of agricultural commodities and building materials to and from Bukavu.[18] In 1945, Goma burgeoned into a state post under Rutshuru Territory's jurisdiction, experiencing a rapid demographic upsurge with approximately 1,000 inhabitants by 1948.[18][19] The inception of urbanization in Belgian Congo was formalized with the promulgation of a decree on 21 February 1949, which instituted entities responsible for evaluating and issuing building permits, overseeing demolitions, modifying land plots, and making changes to the urban landscape.[20]
Goma's prominence as a city grew steadily, earning it the status of an extra-customary center in 1945, with a population estimated at 8,600.[18] In 1951, Goma was elevated to the territorial and capital level of North Kivu, reflecting its economic importance and the influx of settlers during the late 1940s and early 1950s. This period also witnessed movements advocating for administrative separation between Goma and Rutshuru, leading to the establishment of deliberative and executive bodies in Kirotshe and later in Sake.[18]
The urban sprawl of Goma adhered to the tenets of a classic colonial planning paradigm with the demarcation of separate neighborhoods for Europeans (cité Européenne) and indigenous Congolese (cité indigene).[21] The latter was limited to contemporary Birere, a densely populated neighborhood abutting the Rwandan border. Meanwhile, the neighborhoods allocated for European settlers were concentrated within the contemporary city center (quartier les Volcans) and an enclave of the Himbi neighborhood, which persists as the most urbanized, affluent, and wealthy parts of the city.[21]
On 25 December 1966, North Kivu regained its district status before becoming a region following the constitutional referendum of June 1967.[18] By 10 July 1988, North Kivu attained its regional autonomy, promulgating its status as a sovereign entity within the tripartite division of the Kivu region into provinces: North Kivu, South Kivu, and Maniema.[18] A decree issued on 14 September 1988, outlined critical urban development guidelines, such as construction alignments, the delineation of housing plans and communication routes, and the segregation of sustainable residential districts from native-dominated huts.[20] This marked the onset of a segregationist urban paradigm, in which Congolese cities became characterized by a dichotomy between modern urban centers and native settlements, resulting in the coexistence of two disparate forms of urban development.[20] As a result of Goma's burgeoning urbanization, the city was officially designated as the provincial capital of the newly established North Kivu Province under Ordinance Law No. 88-178, issued on 15 November 1988.[20]
1994 Hutu refugee crisis
The 1994 Rwandan genocide was executed by the interim Rwandan government against the Tutsi population and Hutu moderates. In response, the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), formed by Tutsi refugees from Uganda, who already held control over significant portions of northern Rwanda after their invasion in 1990 and the ongoing Civil War, overthrew the Hutu government in Kigali, forcing them out.[22][23][24][25] Over two million Hutus fled the country to Zaire and many Tutsis and Hutus were internally displaced within Rwanda.[26] Although Hutu extremists were responsible for the mass killing of Tutsis, scholars like Judi Rever and Filip Reyntjens argue that the main perpetrators of the slaughter were the Tutsi-dominated RPF, led by Paul Kagame.[27][28][29][30] According to Judi Rever, Kagame personally commanded massacres at places like Byumba soccer stadium in northern Rwanda and ordered the pursuit of Hutus in the Zairean forests.[31] They devised ways to dispose of large numbers of bodies by "dissolving them in acid, dumping them in rivers and swamps, or burning them, and established open air crematorium".[32] Various UN missions attempted to establish safe zones and facilitate the movement of refugees. Between 13 June and 14 July 1994, an overwhelming number of refugees, ranging from 10,000 to 12,000 per day, fled across the border to Goma, resulting in a severe humanitarian crisis,[33] as there was an acute lack of shelter, food and water. However, the Zairean government took it upon itself to garner attention for the situation. Shortly after the arrival of nearly one million refugees,[34] a deadly cholera outbreak swept through the Hutu refugee camps near Goma, claiming thousands of lives. RPF-aligned forces, which had fought in the conflict, crossed the border to Zaire and in acts of revenge also claimed several lives.
As early as mid-1996, infiltrated units from Rwanda began targeting Hutu refugee camps along the Rutshuru road, even before formal hostilities began. On the evening of 27 June 1996, an infiltrated group allegedly carried out an attack on the Kibumba refugee camp, resulting in casualties among Hutu refugees, soldiers from the Contingent Zaïrois pour la sécurité des camps (CZSC), and Red Cross personnel.[35]
During the First Congo War, from mid-October 1996, Rwandan infiltrations intensified, accompanied by sporadic attacks on refugee camps along the Goma to Rutshuru road by the newly formed Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo (AFDL), a rebel movement led by Laurent-Désiré Kabila, and Rwandan Patriotic Army (RPA) led by Paul Kagame, who aimed to overthrow Mobutu Sese Seko's regime, accusing him of excluding Tutsis from governance and failing to stop the génocidaires.[35] However, the United Nations Security Council noted that both the RPA and AFDL pillaged Zaire's minerals for nearly two and a half decades and conducted massacres throughout the conflict.[36][37][38] The Kibumba camp, situated twenty-five kilometers north of Goma, was the first to fall under assault. On the night of 25-26 October 1996, AFDL and RPA soldiers bombarded the Kibumba camp, resulting in casualties among Hutu refugees and the destruction of the camp's hospital. Subsequently, approximately 194,000 refugees fled Kibumba towards the Mugunga camp.[35] The Katale camp also faced attacks on the same night, but Forces Armées Zaïroises (FAZ)/CZSC soldiers and ex-FAR/Interahamwe units repelled the assailants initially.[35] However, on 26 October 1996, AFDL and RPA forces attacked the Katale camp, resulting in numerous Hutu refugee casualties and the death of a Zairian soldier. They also allegedly killed several Hutu refugees using bladed weapons. Following confrontations with FAZ soldiers and ex-FAR/Interahamwe units from the Katale camp, who offered reinforcement, AFDL and RPA forces seized control of the FAZ military camp at Rumangabo.[35]
By 30 October, refugees from Katale and Kahindo camps began to depart, with some heading towards Masisi via Tongo groupement of Bwito Chiefdom, while others attempted to reach the Mugunga camp through the Virunga National Park. However, AFDL and RPA troops had blocked the road to Goma, complicating the refugees' escape routes. On 31 October 1996, AFDL and RPA soldiers allegedly massacred hundreds of Hutu refugees who remained in the Kahindo and Katale camps.[35]Roberto Garretón, the Special Rapporteur on the violation of human rights in Zaire, estimated the casualties and highlighted the brutality inflicted on the refugees.[35]
In the aftermath of AFDL/RPA offensives in North Kivu, some refugees opted to return to Rwanda, though their numbers remained small. UNHCR reported approximately 900 Hutu refugees returning to Rwanda between 26 October and 31 October 1996. The reluctance of many refugees to return stemmed from both physical and psychological pressures, including fear of reprisals from AFDL/RPA soldiers.[35] There were reports of AFDL/RPA soldiers killing refugees who expressed a desire to return to Rwanda.[35] Determining the exact number of refugees killed by AFDL/RPA soldiers in attacks along the Goma to Rutshuru road was challenging. However, local NGOs involved in burial operations provided insights into the scale of the atrocities. The United Nations Mapping Report Team documented numerous alleged incidents, including mass burials and killings in and around refugee camps between November 1996 and April 1997.[35] The violence extended beyond the dismantling of refugee camps; Hutu survivors faced persecution while attempting to flee. In November 1996, AFDL/RPA soldiers reportedly targeted Hutu survivors from Kahindo and Katale camps, executing adult males.[35] These survivors, along with others who resettled in makeshift camps, were subjected to further attacks in the Virunga National Park, resulting in additional casualties.[35] The atrocities persisted for several months, with killings reported well into 1997. Witness testimonies highlighted the grim reality faced by refugees, with bodies discovered daily in former camp sites.[35] On 11 April 1997, AFDL/RPA soldiers allegedly massacred hundreds of refugees near Kibumba village. These refugees, intercepted while attempting to return to Rwanda, were detained and subsequently killed by AFDL/RPA forces.[35]
By the end of 1997, AFDL rebels advanced to Kinshasa, driving out Mobutu and leading to Laurent-Désiré Kabila proclaiming himself president on 17 May, renaming the country the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC).[39]
Within a year of assuming power, Laurent-Désiré Kabila found himself in conflict with his former allies, and in 1998, the Rwandan government threw its support behind a Goma-based rebel movement known as the Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD), occasionally denoted as RCD-Goma.[40][41] The Goma refugee encampments, where Hutu refugees and Interahamwe militants had forged a militia known as the Democratic Force for the Liberation of Rwanda (FDLR), morphed into battlegrounds as Rwandan government forces and the RCD clashed with them to assert dominion.[42][40]
On 2 August 1998, General Sylvain Buki announced via Radio-Télévision Nationale Congolaise (RTNC) in Goma that a rebellion had erupted within the Congolese Armed Forces (FAC).[43] The 10th Brigade of the FAC mutinied, leading to the swift capture of Goma by the RCD and Rwandan Patriotic Army (RPA), with minimal resistance. Goma remained beyond the reach of the Kinshasa government's forces for nearly three years, save for sporadic barrage.[43] Amidst these conflicts, the RCD's bias towards the local Tutsi community, Rwandan interference in provincial affairs, and the brutality of RCD and RPA troops towards civilians in North Kivu prompted many locals to join Mayi-Mayi armed groups to defend their communities. The Mayi-Mayi militias utilized forested areas and national parks as bases for launching attacks against RCD and RPA forces.[43]
With support from Kinshasa, the Mayi-Mayi and ALiR intensified ambushes and pillaging against RCD/RPA soldiers and civilian populations. Consequently, RCD/RPA control was limited to certain urban areas. In response, they increased search operations in various regions.[43] The Second Congo War was unprecedented in Africa for the loss of civilian life in massacres and atrocities. By 2003, the Rwandan Banyamulenge-supported insurgent factions wearied of the conflict, and discord surfaced between them and Rwanda. In 2002 and 2003, a tenuous negotiated peace ensued among the myriad factions embroiled in the conflict.[44][45]
Ongoing conflict
Aerial view of Goma in October 2010
Since the conclusion of the Second Congo War, Goma has been plagued by conflict despite the peace agreements of 2002. In 2006, it became a focal point for the FARDC's 81st and 83rd Brigades, who remained faithful to Congolese Tutsi military defector Laurent Nkunda, who accused the government of neglecting to assimilate his military faction into the national army and failing to safeguard their interests.[46][47] Numerous heinous crimes were committed by Nkunda during his reign of terror. In 2002, he sanctioned the massacre of over 150 people in Kisangani.[48] In Bukavu in 2004, his insurgent affiliates, in conjunction with Colonel Jules Mutebutsi, executed widespread atrocities, including sexual violence and arbitrary detentions, predominantly targeting young girls.[48][49]Human Rights Watch clamored for Nkunda's arrest in February 2006,[48] but it wasn't until June of that year that his military faction made significant territorial gains, capturing localities like Bunagana, located 80 km from Goma.[50]
View of houses in Goma, 2014
Despite intermittent losses and counteroffensives by FARDC's 9th Integrated Brigade,[50] Nkunda's forces maintained control over certain areas like Bunagana and Runyoni. By November 2006, reports cited three fatalities and 41 injuries, among them civilians,[51] and by December, the violence had displaced over 80,000 people, many of whom sought refuge on the outskirts of Goma.[52] The conflict escalated further in early 2007, with Goma's healthcare organization, Groupe d'Entraide et de Solidarité Médicale (GESOM), treating an average of three rape survivors daily from both urban and rural sectors.[53] On 17 May, FARDC arrested 14 Rwandan nationals, including members of Nkunda's brigade, as MONUSCO noted that his militia in North Kivu was wearing distinctive Rwandan military uniforms.[54] Later in May, the French Ambassador to the Democratic Republic of Congo, Bernard Prévost, visited the Mugunga displacement camp near Sake and announced that France would allocate over €2.6 million to the World Food Programme to support displaced persons in the eastern DRC.[55] In June 2007, William Lacy Swing, Director General of the International Organization for Migration, expressed profound concern about the escalating conflict, citing rising insecurity, ethnic discord, the swelling numbers of internally displaced persons, and an increase in human rights abuses in North Kivu.[56] Toward the end of June, Rwandan combatants launched a deadly assault on Lake Kivu, resulting in the deaths of four people, including three fishermen and a Congolese naval officer.[57] The attackers also looted valuable fishing equipment and an outboard motor. Initial negotiations with Rwandan officials regarding cross-border security on Lake Kivu ultimately facilitated the partial recovery of the stolen fishing assets in Rwanda.[57]
On 6 September, MONUSCO brokered a ceasefire between the FARDC and forces loyal to Laurent Nkunda.[58] However, the following day saw renewed clashes, with most of the population from Goma's surrounding regions seeking shelter in the Mugunga, Lac-Vert, and Ndosho neighborhoods, as well as Goma Centre, fearing further confrontations between the FARDC and Nkunda's forces.[58] Fighting between Nkunda's forces and the Mai-Mai community-based militia, Congolese Patriotic Resistance (PARECO), which claimed to protect its community from Nkunda's forces, led to the deaths of 5 people in Bitonga in southern Masisi Territory.[59] The violence led to the displacement of about 640,000 people to Goma.[60] Subsequently, nine deceased people were uncovered in three separate mass graves within Rubare, approximately 12 km from Rutshuru, north of Goma.[61] Two other bodies were discovered in the administrative support post of Kisharo's office, around 20 kilometers from Kiwanja, along the route to Nyamilima and Shasha, within Rutshuru Territory.[62] On 27 October 2008, the Battle of Goma broke out in the city between the Congolese army, supported by MONUSCO, and Nkunda's CNDP rebels; 200,000 refugees fled the town.[63] On 3 November 2012 there was a clash between Congolese and Rwandan troops on the border just north of Goma. Goma was later seized by the M23 Movement on 20 November 2012.[64] During the M23's brief rule, the city endured ten days of chaos, marked by looting and executions, bringing economic activities to a standstill and forcing residents into seclusion.[65][66]
As of March 2022, the clashes between the FARDC, the M23, and various armed groups in North Kivu have displaced over one million people. Among them, more than 600,000 have fled to overcrowded and unsanitary camps on the fringes of Goma.[67]Gender-based violence has also soared in the region, resulting in the prevalence of a pervasive culture of impunity. Between 17–30 April 2023, Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) teams treated 674 victims of sexual violence in camps like Bulengo, Lushagala, and Rusayo, with 360 cases reported solely from the latter, a recently established and densely inhabited settlement situated to the west of Goma.[67] The vast majority of these victims were attacked while venturing outside the displaced sites in search of basic necessities like firewood and sustenance.[67]
The M23's offensive in early February 2024 around Sake, roughly twenty kilometers from Goma, exposed civilians to heavy fighting and forced more displacement towards Goma and previously settled sites or with host families on the Sake-Bweremana axis towards the province from South Kivu in the Kalehe Territory.[68] This influx of displaced people strains already limited resources and infrastructure, making it increasingly challenging to meet the needs of affected communities. Some regional initiatives have addressed the crisis, with the deployment of Southern African Development Community (SADC) forces and summits between heads of state to relaunch the peace process and secure a ceasefire in the region.[68]
On 12 February, South Africa announced it would send 2,900 troops as part of its contribution to the SADC force deployed to tackle armed groups in the eastern DRC.[69] On 15 February, two South African soldiers were killed and three wounded by a mortar bomb launched by M23 rebels.[70] The road to lasting peace remains fraught with challenges, including the need for direct dialogue between the Democratic Republic of Congo and Rwanda.[68]
Ongoing neighborhood insecurity
Since early 2019, violent crimes such as murders, robberies, and kidnappings have plagued outlying neighborhoods, notably Ndosho and Mugunga in Karisimbi commune.[71] Ndosho, known for its bustling markets and brothels, is characterized by high crime rates and ethnic heterogeneity, while Mugunga, predominantly populated by Hutus, formerly hosted extensive refugee camps in the aftermath of the Rwandan genocide, alongside sizable IDPs settlements during periods of heightened conflict between the CNDP (and subsequently M23) and the FARDC from 2008 to 2010 and 2012 to 2013.[71] Although the camps have been dismantled, the neighborhood is characterized by a high number of former IDPs (Hunde and Hutu) who settled in Mugunga. Both neighborhoods border Virunga National Park to the north and the main road to Sake to the south, dividing the Goma and Karisimbi communes, with diurnal activities centered along this road.[71] A significant number of Mugunga's inhabitants, including brigands and maibobo (street children), gravitate towards Ndosho during daylight hours, lured by its superior commercial prospects. Throughout the day, encounters with insecurity primarily revolve around pickpocketing, extortion by maibobo, gang-related harassment, and coercive measures employed by security personnel in Ndosho.[71] Brigandage and petty crime have evolved into a viable means of subsistence for many and are part of an urban economy of survival and enrichment. Pilfered merchandise goods are openly sold in the markets, with numerous criminals attaining notoriety within their neighborhoods and certain gang leaders achieving city-wide renown.[71] During the night, security conditions worsen and become more violent. Most residents return to their homes, while mixed patrols of the Police Nationale Congolaise (PNC) and Police Militaire (PM) units, along with gangs, prowl around the streets. Without pedestriantraffic and under the cloak of darkness, it becomes easier for bandits, thieves, and even unscrupulous police and military officers to operate.[71]
Goma has been heavily affected by sexual violence, which is deeply intertwined with the ongoing regional conflicts, economic instability, and social challenges that have marked the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo for decades.[72][73][74] Armed groups, local militias, and, at times, even some members of state forces have been implicated in sexual violence against civilians.[75] Such violations are often weaponized as a deliberate tool of war to terrorize communities, assert control, and break down social cohesion.[75] Survivors often face physical injuries, sexually transmitted infections, psychological trauma, and social stigma. A study from 2007 revealed that around 1.69–1.80 million women aged 15–29 in the DRC reported experiencing sexual assault at some point in their lives, with North Kivu recording 223,262 cases, the highest rate nationally.[75] Further research in 2010 indicated that 39.7% of women in North and South Kivu had experienced sexual violence.[75] In 2023, Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) reported a sharp increase in sexual violence cases in the DRC, mainly concentrated in and around Goma. MSF treated 25,166 survivors nationwide, averaging more than two patients per hour.[76] In the first five months of 2024 alone, MSF treated 17,363 survivors in North Kivu, representing 69% of the total cases treated across five provinces in the previous year.[77]
Medical literature, demographics, and medical treatment
Despite substantial media coverage, sexual violence within the DRC remains insufficiently addressed in medical literature. A study conducted in Goma from 2013 to 2017 revealed that sexual violence disproportionately affected females below 18 years, with an average age of 16.5 years.[75] Half of the perpetrators were known to the survivors; 12% of survivors tested positive for pregnancy, and 43% received emergency contraception.[75]
In a separate study covering January 2019 to December 2020, Karisimbi municipality in Goma reported 551 cases of sexual violence, while the Goma municipality recorded 149 cases.[75] The Majengo neighborhood in Karisimbi reported the highest frequency, with 129 cases.[75] Among the survivors, women aged 20–29 represented 28.6%, with only 15.7% reporting incidents occurring within their homes, and 60.7% of incidents involved the use of weapons.[75]Vaginal assault occurred in all cases, and other forms of assault, like touching, occurred in 7.2% of cases. Strangers constituted 64.7% of the perpetrators, and 61.4% of assailants were identified as members of military or police forces.[75] Among survivors, 8.1% had a physical disability. Of the 700 survivors, only 16.1% sought medical consultation for genital injuries, and 0.7% presented with mutism.[75] Approximately 60.6% sought medical care within 72 hours, with 8.1% testing positive for HIV.[75] Of the survivors, 76.3% underwent pregnancy tests, 6.4% of which were positive. Additionally, 55.4% of survivors received contraception, and 91.1% were offered post-exposure prophylactic treatment for HIV.[75]
In August 2019, Rwandan Health Minister Diane Gashumba announced that students in Rwanda would cease attending school in Goma due to the Ebola outbreak, which has claimed the lives of over 1,800 people within the past year.[79]
COVID-19 pandemic
The Democratic Republic of the Congo confirmed its first case of COVID-19 on 10 March 2020.[80][81][82][83] Following this, the virus spread throughout the country, resulting in a cumulative total of over 56,086 cases and 1,068 deaths (1.9% lethality) as of 5 September 2021.[82] Kinshasa reported the highest number of cases, followed by North Kivu, which constituted 10.4% (5,841 cases) of the national aggregate.[82] Within Goma, the virus predominantly disseminated via community-based transmission.[82]
In response, the DRC instituted stringent containment protocols to attenuate the ramifications of COVID-19, in alignment with the directives of the World Health Organization (WHO) and the national Ministry of Public Health.[82] These regulations encompassed the closure of educational institutions, places of worship, markets, and various public venues, coupled with prohibitions on large congregations, resulting in the cancellation of Goma's annual Amani Festival in 2021.[82][84][85][86] Despite these measures, Goma's economy confronted considerable adversities, with the city encountering a pronounced inflation rate of 16.4% in 2020, juxtaposed with 4.6% in the preceding year.[87] This inflationary pressure undermined household incomes and diminished overall quality of life.[88] However, by July 2024, the DRC achieved a significant milestone, reporting no new COVID-19 cases.[89]
Volcanic activity
Due to the Great Rift Valley being pulled apart, the area experiences frequent earthquakes and the formation of new volcanoes. Over time, volcanic eruptions have directly impacted Goma, with significant lava flows destroying nearby villages, neighborhoods, and roads north of the city.[8] The 1923 and 1997 eruptions caused significant damage and loss of life, with lava flows encroaching upon Lake Kivu's shores and destroying sections of the city.[90][8][91]
2002 Nyiragongo volcano eruption
Computer image of Nyiragongo volcano generated from satellite photographs, showing the Goma-Gisenyi conurbation on the lake shore in the foreground. In the background, left, is the Nyamuragira volcano. Note that the vertical scale has been exaggerated.
In January 2002, Nyiragongo erupted, sending a stream of lava200 metres (219yd) to one kilometre (1,100 yards) wide and up to two metres (6½ft) deep through the center of the city as far as the lake shore. Agencies monitoring the volcano were able to give a warning and most of the population of Goma evacuated to Gisenyi. The lava destroyed 40% of the city (more than 4,500 houses and buildings). There were some fatalities caused by the lava and by emissions of carbon dioxide, which causes asphyxiation. The lava also covered over the northern 1km of the 3-kilometre (9,800ft)runway of Goma International Airport, isolating the terminal and apron which were at that end.[92] The lava can easily be seen in satellite photographs,[93] and aircraft can be seen using the 2-km (6,500-ft) southern section of the runway which is clear of lava.
In March 2004, emissions from Nyiragongo volcano polluted the surrounding areas of North Kivu, including Rusayo, Bishusha, Birambizo, Tongo, Kitshanga, and Sake with water vapor (H2O) laden with fluorine and carbon dioxide (CO2).[94]
On 22 May 2021, Mount Nyiragongo erupted with lava flows closing a road and reaching the municipal airport.[95] The Buhene neighborhood, located on the edge of Goma, was engulfed in flames, and more than 500 homes were covered in cooling lava. Parts of Virunga Energies's electricity facilities, which supplied electricity to nearly 15,000 homes in the city, were destroyed.[96] Thousands of people fled to nearby regions, with some boarding boats on Lake Kivu, which lies on the border of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Rwanda. Around 5,000 people crossed the border into Rwanda, while another 25,000 went northwest towards Sake.[97][98] The lava stopped flowing around 3 a.m. on 30 May 2021, and the Congolese government ordered the city's evacuation plan to be set in motion.[97] On the same day, residents returned to Goma to check on their homes. However, the United Nations Children's Fund reported that more than 170 children were still missing.[97] The official report on the number of deaths is yet to be released, but the Minister of Communication and Media, Patrick Muyaya Katembwe, said at least 15 people died. Nine people died in a traffic accident, four died while trying to escape from the central prison of Munzenze, and two were calcined by lava.[99]
2023 Nyamulagira volcano eruption
On 9 May 2023, lava flows were seen inside the central crater of Nyamulagira volcano. By 17 May, a large glow above the volcano was visible, leading to lava flows in Virunga National Park.[100][101][102] While the lava flows do not harm the population, the volcano emits large amounts of gas and fine particles. Thermal radiation over the crater increased sharply on 19 May, indicating an increase in the outpouring of lava, but the activity was still confined to the summit.[100]Effusive eruption increased further on 20 May, forming two large lobes — one outside the caldera to the west and another to the south. Although not visible, satellite images on May 19 and 20 showed that the current eruption at the volcano was emitting enormous amounts of sulfur dioxide (SO2).[100]
Lake Kivu is one of three lakes in Africa identified as having huge quantities of dissolved gas held at pressure in its depths. The other two, Cameroon's Lake Monoun and Lake Nyos, experienced limnic eruptions or "lake overturns", catastrophic releases of suffocating carbon dioxide probably triggered by landslides. Lake Nyos's overturn in 1986 was particularly lethal, killing nearly two thousand people in the area around the lake. Kivu is 2,000 times bigger than Lake Nyos and also contains dissolved methane as an additional hazard – though concentration of carbon dioxide is much lower than in Lake Nyos.[103] Nearly two million people, including the population of Goma, live in the vicinity of Lake Kivu and could be in danger from a limnic eruption triggered by one of the nearby volcanoes and the earthquakes associated with them.[104]
The CO2-rich gas location, known locally as mazuku has recently caused the death of people and animals.[105][106]
During the 1970s, theatrical activities in Goma flourished, with well-organized theater troupes such as AMIKI (Amis du Kivu) with Kembo and Mazingi, CLB with Tshiaba, Kainos, and Robert De Souza, and Ngoma with Mpozayo Jean-Paul, among others. The shows were held at the city's Ciné Palace hall. Additionally, the Goma Institute organized a school troupe under the leadership of the then-prefect Lumaya Ombwel, featuring talented student actors like Robert De Souza, also known as Kablan or Gilima, and Mwamba, alias Ringo.[116] On 16 March 2013, Goma played host to the inaugural tshukudu race, a wooden bicycle race organized by the United Nations Volunteers (UNV) and Association of Volunteers of Congo (Association des Volontaires du Congo; ASVOCO), which aimed to provide opportunities for the region's unemployed youth and promote peace, with the proceeds benefiting children in Kitchanga.[117][118][119]
Goma is a hub of art and craftsmanship, with skilled artisans creating intricate wood carvings, pottery, textiles, and jewelry.[120][116][121][122] The city is home to Petna Ndaliko Katondolo's acclaimed multigenre film productions, which embrace a decolonial Ejo Lobi (Afro-futuristic) aesthetic that weaves together historical narratives to confront contemporary sociopolitical and cultural paradigms.[110]
The Foyer Culturel de Goma is the city's most significant cultural center, which plays a pivotal role in nurturing emerging talents, including musicians, poets, thespians, and visual artists, as well as fostering the proliferation and commercialization of indigenous culture and artistic expression within the North Kivu Province.[123][124] The city also hosts the Amani Festival, a transculturalfestival drawing participants from the African Great Lakes region along with international artists and representatives of different ethnic groups from the region.[125] Goma also houses Yole! Africa, a youth cultural center promoting peace through art, music, dance, and film.[126][127][128] The renowned spectacle "Au Chemin des Urnes", hosted by the French Institute (IF) of Goma, celebrates the city's poetic, musical, and rhythmic tapestry.[129][130]
Infrastructure
Aerial view of Goma
Urbanization in Goma is in a state of progressive expansion, though the cityscape remains predominantly characterized by horizontal, low-rise structures.[131] Concentrated largely around National Road 2, commercial activity is vigorous, with numerous bars, shops, Nganda (local eateries), and hotels lining this central corridor.[131] Major commercial zones such as Supermatch, Nyiragongo Cement, and several key stations like Ihusi, IBB Service, AFRICOM, Ni Yetu, Tout Jeune, and GPI dominate the city's urban landscape.[131]
While low-rise architecture remains the prevailing style due to its affordability and practicality, multi-story buildings are beginning to emerge.[131] Goma's traditional wood board construction, popular due to its speed and cost-efficiency, is increasingly complemented by more durable vertical structures, which require significantly more extended construction periods due to the materials and techniques involved.[131]
Goma's sambaza are small fish that are traditionally fried and consumed in the region
Cuisine in Goma reflects the region's agricultural abundance and diverse influences. Staple foods include cassava, plantains, maize, and rice, often served alongside a variety of meats, fish, and vegetables. Local specialties such as bugali (a starchy dough), sambaza (small dried fish), and sombe (cassava leaves cooked in peanut sauce) are popular among both residents and visitors.[135][108]
The city boasts a variety of Swahili, Lingala, and French language radio stations, including RTNC Goma, Radio Okapi, Sauti ya Injili, Radio La Colombe, Radio Télévision Taina (RTCT), Kivu 1, Mishapi Voice TV, Mutaani, Sauti ya Matumaini, RAO FM, COMICO, and Source de Vie, offering various news, entertainment, religious programming, and cultural content.[108]
Boxing also plays a significant role in Goma's sports culture, with the city hosting a variety of boxing events, including inter-regional boxing tournaments at the Higher Institute of Commerce of Goma (Institut supérieur de Commerce de Goma; ISC-Goma).[153] In 2015, Goma served as the host city for an inter-regional boxing tournament organized by the brewing company Brasimba of Beni, which attracted both amateur and professional pugilists from Goma, Bukavu, Beni, Butembo, and Rwanda.[153] On 30 June 2024, Goma hosted a Boxing Gala organized by the North Kivu Boxing League to commemorate the nation's independence, featuring participants from North Kivu, South Kivu, and Maniema.[154]
Cassava cultivation on the highlands surrounding the green crater lake in Goma, December 2015
Goma's economy relies mainly on agriculture, with a significant proportion of its population engaged in the trade of agricultural products. However, due to the instability of the local currency, economic transactions often involve foreign currencies.[155] Primarily centered on the production of raw materials, including agriculture, fishing, hunting, and fish farming, these activities typically employ artisanal methods and antiquated production techniques. Agricultural products are primarily sourced from neighboring territories such as Masisi and Rutshuru, supplemented by the resources of Lake Kivu, which hosts thriving fish markets along its shores twice a week.[155] Cultivation primarily focuses on garden crops and selected staples such as legumes, maize, and tubers, leveraging the fertile volcanic soil enriched by basaltic substrata. Nevertheless, the dense population necessitates diversification to ensure food security and fostering interdependence with neighboring territories and countries for supplementary yields.[155]
The secondary sector, comprising industrial activities that transform materials, is less developed in Goma but holds potential for growth, given the city's dense population, which provides abundant labor and potentially mitigates production overheads for entrepreneurs.[155] Notable production units include the MTC (Master Tabac Congo) conglomerate producing premium-grade cigarettes, coffee processing factories like SOTRAKI and ONC, pâtisseries exemplified by Au Bon Pain and Boulangerie Mont Carmel, bottling facilities for potable water, and photographicateliers typified by Fujicolor.[155]
The tertiary sector dominates Goma's economy, encompassing a broad spectrum of service-based activities such as public administration, commerce, education, healthcare, and law enforcement. The financial sector plays a pivotal role, with banking and non-bankingfinancial institutions serving the city's population.[155] Banking institutions like BCC (Banque Centrale du Congo), BPC (Banque Privée du Congo), BCD (Banque Commerciale et de Développement), and others provide financial services, while non-banking entities inclusive of microfinance institutions and NGOs fortified with credit components cater to various fiscal needs within the city.[155]
Microfinance institutions, including SOMIF/NFT, IMF Hekima, and PAIDEK, contribute to financial inclusion and support economic development initiatives. NGOs such as the Congolese Initiative for Autonomous Management of Populations and the Association of Support for Grassroots Initiatives provide credit and assistance to entrepreneurs and small businesses.[155] The city is also home to quasi-public non-bank financial institutions exemplified by SONAS (national insurance company) and INSS (Institution Nationale de Sécurité Sociale).[155]
Goma benefits from support organizations like UNDP, APIBA, UWEKI, and CAFED, which foster entrepreneurship, provide training, and facilitate access to resources for local businesses. These entities, alongside public enterprises like SONAS and INSS promote economic growth and sustainability in Goma.[155]
Transport
Goma International Airport
Air
Aviation is a significant transport mode linking Goma with domestic and international destinations. Goma International Airport, which serves as the city's principal gateway, handles passenger and cargo traffic and facilitates two international routes to Entebbe and Nairobi, serviced by Ethiopian Airlines and Jambojet.[132] However, the aviation industry in Goma has changed over the years with the emergence and departure of various carriers. While enterprises such as Virunga Air, Charter, and Sunair have ceased operations, stalwart aviation entities like société de Transports et Messageries au Kivu SARL (TMK), alongside Wimbi Dira Airways and Hewa Bora Airways persist in operating and rendering their services.[132]
Maritime
Maritime transport is also an essential mode of transportation, connecting Goma with nearby cities like Bukavu in the South Kivu Province. Boats and ferries operated by companies such as the Société Nationale des Chemins de fer du Congo (SNCC) and private operators like Rafiki and Ihusi Hotel facilitate the movement of people and merchandise goods across Lake Kivu.[156][132] Notably, boats such as Emmanuel 2, assembled locally, provide an alternative mode of transport, significantly reducing travel time compared to road travel.[157]
Road
Lake Kivu
Road transport, presided over by private operators, is vital for intra-city and inter-city travel, encompassing a network of paved and unpaved routes.[132][131]National Road No. 2 bisects the urban landscape, supplemented by smaller road segments, though their cumulative length is at most three kilometers.[131] The city's road transport system comprises various vehicles, including car, trucks, buses and motorcycles, with car and motorcycle taxis facilitating the majority of shuttle services.[131] Car taxis, often referred to as city taxis, are predominantly used for passenger transport, while luggage taxis cater to the movement of goods. Motorcycle taxis, commonly employed for both passenger and small package deliveries, play a vital role in local mobility.[131] Goma's location on the Rwandan border ensures its connectivity to Gisenyi, with regular bus services facilitating travel between Goma and Kigali in less than four hours.[132] Goma's road network connects to Masisi, Walikale, Kisangani, Rutshuru, Butembo, Beni, Kasindi, Bunia, and Bukavu, among other destinations. Within the city, motorcycles operate day and night, with different drivers serving distinct shifts.[158] Although major roads in Goma have improved, some residential avenues remain underdeveloped. Numerous roads are obstructed, either by improperly constructed homes, mountains of discarded waste, or incomplete construction projects, thereby limiting vehicular access in specific neighborhoods.[158]
Goma hosts the Free University of the Great Lakes Countries, which supports local development initiatives.[165][166] The Goma International Airport accepts commercial charter flights and also, passenger flights operated by Ethiopian Airlines and Jambojet travel to Addis Ababa and Nairobi.[167] Goma has four or five lakeside wharves totaling about 130m (430ft), the longest being about 80m (260ft). As of 2014, an art gallery had opened, featuring local woodcarving, painting, and puppets.[168]
The roads in Goma were in poor repair for about 20 years, and also many roads were heavily damaged from the volcanic lava flow disasters. Many roads began to be rebuilt as of 2011, primarily by Chinese contractors, and the city is being renovated either by public and private contractors, as well as by MONUSCO.[170]
North Kivu is a province bordering Lake Kivu in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. Its capital is Goma. The 2020 population was estimated to be 8,147,400.
South Kivu is one of 26 provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Its capital is Bukavu.
Bukavu is a city in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), lying at the extreme south-western edge of Lake Kivu, west of Cyangugu in Rwanda, and separated from it by the outlet of the Ruzizi River. It is the capital of the South Kivu Province and as of 2012 it had an estimated population of 806,940.
The Kivu conflict is an umbrella term for a series of protracted armed conflicts in the North Kivu and South Kivu provinces in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo which have occurred since the end of the Second Congo War. Including neighboring Ituri province, there are more than 120 different armed groups active in the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. Currently, some of the most active rebel groups include the Allied Democratic Forces, the Cooperative for the Development of the Congo, the March 23 Movement, and many local Mai Mai militias. In addition to rebel groups and the governmental FARDC troops, a number of national and international organizations have intervened militarily in the conflict, including the United Nations force known as MONUSCO, and an East African Community regional force.
Laurent Nkunda is a former General in the Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and is the former warlord operating in the province of North-Kivu, and a officer of the Tutsi-dominated government of neighbouring Rwanda. Nkunda, who is himself a Congolese born Tutsi, commanded the former DRC troops of the 81st and 83rd Brigades of the DRC Army. He speaks English, French, Swahili, Kinyarwanda, Lingala and Kinande. On January 22, 2009, he was put under house arrest in Gisenyi when he was called for a meeting to plan a joint operation between the Congolese and Rwandan militaries.
Army General Gabriel Amisi Kumba was Chief of Staff of the Forces Terrestres, the army of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Amisi was a former Forces armees Zairoises (FAZ) officer who was recruited into the Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo (AFDL) in 1996. During the Second Congo War, Amisi was assistant chief of staff for logistics of the Rally for Congolese Democracy (RCD-G). This position was the origin of his nickname, as T-4 was the abbreviation for his position. He was implicated by Human Rights Watch in the execution of soldier Joe Lona Bifuko and in the torture of prisoners in the ANC military intelligence detention centre in Goma in 2001.
Kanyabayonga is a town straddling the Lubero and Rutshuru territories of North Kivu province in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Administratively, the part which is in Lubero is the commune of Kanyabayonga and, the part in Rutshuru belongs to the Kanyabayonga groupement (grouping) which extends well south of the town and is within the Bwito chiefdom. The region as a whole has seen much armed conflict since 1993.
Rutshuru Territory is a territory in the North Kivu province of the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), with headquarters is the town of Rutshuru.
The March 23 Movement, often abbreviated as M23 and also known as the Congolese Revolutionary Army, is a Congolese rebel military group. Based in eastern areas of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), it operates mainly in the province of North Kivu, which borders both Uganda and Rwanda. The M23 rebellion of 2012 to 2013 against the DRC government led to the displacement of large numbers of people. On 20 November 2012, M23 took control of Goma, a provincial capital with a population of a million people, but it was requested to evacuate it by the International Conference on the Great Lakes Region because the DRC government had finally agreed to negotiate. In late 2012, Congolese troops, along with UN troops, retook control of Goma, and M23 announced a ceasefire and said that it wanted to resume peace talks.
Bunyakiri is a town located in the high plateau of Kalehe Territory in the South Kivu Province in the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Bunyakiri is nearby the Bulehe and Mulamba villages. It is mainly inhabited by Tembo, Havu, Twa and Hunde ethnic groups.
Nyiragongo Territory is a territory in North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
Uvira Territory is a territory in South Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is bordered by Walungu Territory to the north, Mwenga Territory to the west, Fizi Territory to the south, and Burundi and Lake Tanganyika to the east. Its capital is Uvira.
In late March 2022, the March 23 Movement (M23), supported by Rwanda, launched an offensive in North Kivu against the Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (FARDC) and MONUSCO. The fighting displaced hundreds of thousands of civilians and caused renewed tensions between the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Rwanda.
Mount Hehu are large hills located in the Buhumba groupement (grouping) within the Bukumu Chiefdom of the Nyiragongo Territory in the North Kivu Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo. Standing at an elevation of 2,430 meters, Mount Hehu is situated near Hibumba and Bungeshi Mukuru villages on the border of Rwanda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
Bwegera is a village in the Bafuliiru Chiefdom in the Uvira Territory of South Kivu Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo. Bwegera has an elevation of 952 meters and is situated in the vicinity of the Kakamba and Nyaruhuhuma villages. The region It's crossed by Lake Tanganyika, providing a vital source of water and transportation for the local inhabitants. Bwegera is rich in building materials such as rubble, sand, and baked bricks, making it an ideal location for construction and development. The region also encompasses a vast rural area where agriculture, animal breeding, and fishing are the primary means of livelihood.
Kitchanga, also known as Kitshanga, is a town and a camp for Congolese Internally Displaced People (IDPs) strategically positioned between Masisi and Rutshuru territories of the North Kivu Province, with a vantage point overlooking Lake Kivu in the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Administratively, the Masisi part of Kitchanga functions as a larger urban center and the capital of the Bashali Chiefdom, while the other part is situated in the Bwito Chiefdom of the Rutshuru Territory. Geographically, Kitchanga is located approximately 90 km northwest of Goma and 10 kilometers north of Burungu, in close proximity to the villages of Kizimba and Budey. As of 2015, the population of Kitchanga was estimated at 18,927 for the Masisi Territory part and 25,157 for the Rutshuru Territory, excluding the populace within the displaced sites of Kahe and Mungote adjacent to Kitchanga in the Masisi Territory.
The Bafuliiru Chiefdom, also spelled as Chefferie de Bafulero, is a chiefdom located in Uvira Territory, South Kivu Province, in the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
The Ngweshe Chiefdom is a chiefdom located in Walungu Territory, within the South Kivu Province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). It shares borders with Kabare Territory to the north, Rwanda and Burundi to the northeast, Mwenga Territory and Shabunda Territory to the south, and Kaziba Chiefdom to the east. According to the territory's 2018 annual report, the chiefdom has an estimated population of 672,436.
The Bwito Chiefdom is a chiefdom located in the Rutshuru Territory of North Kivu Province in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). It is bordered to the north by Batangi Chiefdom and Kanyabayonga commune in Lubero Territory, Bwisha Chiefdom in the east, and to the north-east by Lake Edward and the Republic of Uganda. To the west, it is bordered by Bashali Chiefdom in Masisi Territory, and to the northwest by Wanyanga Chiefdom in Walikale Territory. To the south, it is bordered by Nyiragongo Territory.
The Bashali Chiefdom is a chiefdom located in the Masisi Territory of North Kivu Province in the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Topographically, it is bounded to the east by the Virunga National Park, to the north by the Bwito Chiefdom of Rutshuru Territory, to the northwest by Walikale Territory, to the south by the Bahunde Chiefdom, and to the west by the Osso sector. Encompassing a total area of 1,582 square kilometers, the chiefdom is the administrative and sociopolitical structure for the Hunde ethnic group and is administratively subdivided into two groupements: Bashali-Mokoto and Bashali-Kaembe. Kitchanga, the urban center and administrative capital of the Bashali-Mokoto groupement, is the most densely populated locality within the chiefdom.
↑ Van Niekerk, T.; Le Du, B. & Slater, R. (2023). "ngoma". Dictionary for South African English (Correcteded.). Makhanda, South Africa: Rhodes University.
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↑ "Sud-Kivu: 6 officiers FARDC refoulés de Bukavu"[South Kivu: 6 FARDC officers pushed back from Bukavu]. Radio Okapi (in French). Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo. 2007-02-28. Retrieved 2024-02-21.
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↑ Younger, Veronica the (2017-11-06). "A Goma, si t'as un chukudu, t'es le roi de la rue"[In Goma, if you have a chukudu, you are the king of the street]. Franceinfo (in French). Paris, France. Retrieved 2024-02-13.
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1 2 3 4 5 6 Kwiraviwe, Jonas Muhindo. "Chapitre I: Descripion de la ville de Goma"[Chapter I: Description of the city of Goma] (in French). Goma, North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Conbgo: Institut Supérieur de Développement Rural des Grands Lacs (ISDR-GL). Retrieved 27 February 2024.
↑ Plumptre, A. J.; Davenport, T. R.; Behangana, M.; Kityo, R.; Eilu, G.; Ssegawa, P.; Ewango, C.; Meirte, D.; Kahindo, C.; Herremans, M. & Peterhans, J. K. (2007). "The biodiversity of the Albertine Rift". Biological Conservation. 134 (2): 178–194. Bibcode:2007BCons.134..178P. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2006.08.021.
1 2 "Coup d'envoi du tournoi interrégional de boxe à Goma"[Inter-regional boxing tournament kicks off in Goma]. Province du Nord-Kivu (in French). Goma, North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo. 25 June 2015. Retrieved 14 October 2024.
1 2 John, Luendo Malira (September 2018). "Essai d'etude sur le reamenagement urbain de la ville de Goma"[Study essay on the urban redevelopment of the city of Goma](PDF) (in French). Goma, North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Institut Supérieur de Tourisme de Goma (ISTOU-Goma). p.27. Retrieved 4 October 2024.
↑ "Talatala". talatala.cd (in French). Congo Research Group. Retrieved 16 October 2024.
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