The province is home to two major lakes: Lake Kivu and Lake Tanganyika. Lake Kivu, situated at an altitude of 1,470 meters, is one of the deepest lakes in Africa.[5][46] However, its ichthyofaunal biodiversity remains comparatively constrained due to the pervasive presence of dissolved carbon dioxide and methane gas.[5] In contrast, Lake Tanganyika, which reaches a depth of 773 meters, is rich in fish and supports fishing activities in the region. It is also the second deepest in the world after Russia's Lake Baikal. These two lakes are connected by the Ruzizi River, which runs along the province's eastern border.[5] Other significant rivers include the Elila and Ulindi Rivers,[28] with many originating from the eastern mountain ranges before draining westward into the Lualaba River. Most of the province's rivers belong to the Congo River Basin, although some flow directly into its lakes.[5] Lake Kivu contains an estimated 45 billion cubic meters of dissolved methane gas in its deep waters, presenting both an energy resource and a potential environmental hazard.[28]
The province hosts four hydroelectric power stations, such as Ruzizi I, Ruzizi II, Kyimbi (Bendera), and Mungombe, while the Magembe micro-power plant in Fizi Territory remains inoperative.[28] South Kivu is also endowed with considerable petroleum reserves, with oil deposits identified along the western littoral of Lake Kivu, within its subaqueous substratum, and across the Ruzizi Plain and Lake Tanganyika.[28] Ongoing exploratory endeavors are being undertaken in Katanga, particularly at the confluence of the Mutambala River in Baraka, alongside similar research in Karamba, near the Nemba River, where bituminous hydrocarbon residues containing an 80% carbon composition have been extracted since 2020.[28]Peat deposits are similarly exploited in multiple locales, including Kakonda (Kabare Territory) and Nyangezi, Chiherano, and Kachandja (Walungu Territory).[28]
The province is prone to seasonal flooding, particularly during the rainy season, which frequently disrupts infrastructure and settlements.[47][48][49][50]
The province's geology is divided into three main groups: basement terrains, volcanic terrains, and cover terrains. The basement terrains, primarily found in the western and central parts of the province, date back to the Middle Carboniferous period.[51] These areas, which make up more than 70% of the province, are rich in valuable minerals like cassiterite, gold, columbite-tantalite (coltan), and wolframite, which have been mined since the colonial era.[51] Volcanic terrains near Bukavu are dominated by basaltic rocks and ancient lava flows, particularly in the National INERA-Mulungu region.[51]
In addition to its volcanic terrain, South Kivu contains extensive sedimentary basins, such as the Lake Kivu and Ruzizi Plain Basin, which have accumulated mineral-rich deposits over time. These include valuable resources such as gold, columbite-tantalite, diamonds and wolframite as well as tin, monazite, limestone, cassiterite, methane gas and thermal waters.[57][58][59] The province's soil composition varies by region: Kabare, Idjwi, and Walungu territories have predominantly clayey soils, though these are increasingly degraded due to erosion and overpopulation, leading to frequent land disputes and a decline in livestock farming.[5] While Idjwi still retains fertile agricultural land, population pressures have made arable land scarce. Kalehe Territory has rich clay soils, benefiting from its proximity to forests and containing small gold deposits.[5] In contrast, the territories of Shabunda, Mwenga, and Fizi have sandy soils that support agriculture while also holding significant mineral wealth, including tin, gold, cassiterite, and coltan. Uvira Territory features sandy soils ideal for rice and cotton cultivation, while its high plateaus provide favorable conditions for livestock farming due to their mild climate.[5]
South Kivu's mountainous eastern region, including Bukavu, experiences a temperate climate with mild temperatures. The dry season lasts from June to September, with an average annual temperature of 19°C in Bukavu.[51] Higher altitudes, such as the Minembwe, Mulenge, Kalonge, and Kahuzi-Biéga mountains, experience cooler temperatures. These areas support grassy mountain vegetation with distinct layers.[51][60]
The central and western parts of the province, particularly Shabunda Territory and Mwenga Territory, have a tropical rainforest climate, characterized by dense equatorial forests and abundant rainfall throughout the year.[51] The Ruzizi Plain, however, experiences a microclimate with a tropical climate and relatively low rainfall (approximately 1,000 mm per year). Kabare, Walungu, Kalehe, Idjwi, and Bukavu territories experience a distinct two-season cycle: a dry season lasting three months (June to September) and a rainy season lasting nine months.[51] The dry season is marked by high temperatures and a scarcity of rainfall, particularly in marshy areas. However, deforestation, environmental degradation, and population growth are increasingly disrupting the rainfall patterns in these regions.[51] Forested areas such as Fizi, Mwenga, and Shabunda, located near the equatorial forest, receive heavy rainfall year-round. Uvira, apart from its highlands, has also seen declining rainfall and rising temperatures due to population growth and environmental destruction.[51]
South Kivu is administratively structured into a decentralized system that balances governance between the central government, provincial authorities, and localized territorial entities. The province is hierarchically divided into several administrative subdivisions, including territories, cities, communes, sectors, and chiefdoms.[61] Both the province and decentralized territorial entities (Entités Territoriales Décentralisées; ETDs) possess legal personality, allowing them to manage economic, human, financial, and technical resources autonomously.[61]
The province is composed of eight territories,[5][62][63] each governed by a Territorial Administrator, who is assisted by two Assistant Territorial Administrators. These officials, appointed by the Ministry of the Interior and Security, are responsible for implementing state policies and overseeing governance in remote or rural areas.[64][51] The province's administration is further supervised by the provincial governor, who acts as the President's representative in South Kivu.[64][51]
South Kivu has four officially recognized cities: Bukavu, Uvira, Baraka, and Kamituga.[28][29] Each city functions as a decentralized administrative entity with legal status and is led by a mayor (Burgomaster; French: Bourgmestre) and a deputy mayor, both appointed by presidential decree, following recommendations from the Minister of the Interior and Security.[61]
As the provincial capital and established in 1901, it was designated an urban district in 1925 and granted city status in 1958.[66] The city is divided into three communes: Bagira, Ibanda, and Kadutu, comprising 20 quarters and more than 400 avenues.[66]
As the economic center of South Kivu, Bukavu's economy is primarily driven by the informal sector and small and medium-sized enterprises.[67][68] Key industries include quinine production by Pharmakina, beverage manufacturing by Bralima, and mattress production by GINKI.[68] Additional small-scale industries produce shoes, plastic containers, wood products, and artisanal soap. The city also hosts financial institutions, banks, and money transfer agencies.[68] Notably, CJX Minerals Mining, a private Congolese company founded in 2014, is the leading exporter of 3T minerals (tin, tantalum, tungsten, and gold) in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.[69]
Historically the administrative center of Uvira Territory since 25 February 1938,[70] gained city status through a 2013 Prime Ministerial decree,[70][71] which was formally ratified by President Joseph Kabila on 27 December 2018.[72] The city's status was reinforced by Decree No. 13/029 on 13 June 2019, officially recognizing it as the second city of South Kivu after Bukavu.[73] Uvira comprises three communes: Kalundu, Mulongwe, and Kagando.[72][73]
Situated west of the Ubwari Peninsula on the west side of Lake Tanganyika, Baraka was granted city status on 10 February 2010, and officially recognized in 2018 through Presidential Decree No. 13/29 of 13 June 2018.[83] It is the third-largest city in South Kivu and serves as the socio-economic hub of Fizi Territory.[83] Baraka is divided into three communes: Baraka (center), Katanga, and Kalundja. Its economy plays a crucial role in the financial and commercial activities of Fizi.[83]
Founded in 1923 by the Compagnie Minière des Grands-Lacs (MGL), Kamituga's development was driven by its role as a mining center. The city was granted official status through Decrees No. 13/029 and 13/030 of 13 June 2013, which elevated multiple agglomerations to city and municipal status.[29] However, the implementation of these decrees was suspended in 2015, reducing the number of recognized cities. Kamituga's city status was later reaffirmed in December 2018, making it the 36th city in the DRC.[29]
As the administrative center of Mwenga Territory, Kamituga's growth was historically tied to the exploitation of gold-bearing gravels from the Elila River Basin.[29] Mining activities were initially managed by MGL, which merged with KIVUMINES, PHIBRAKI, and COBELMIN in 1969.[84] In 1976, the company further merged with SYMETAIN to form Société Minière et Industrielle du Kivu (SOMINKI).[84] The Congolese state held a 28% stake in SOMINKI, with the majority of shares controlled by the Empain Group.[84]
The process of granting city status began in 2009. On 9 June that year, the provincial governor submitted a proposal to the Provincial Assembly requesting the elevation of several agglomerations to the rank of ville (city) and commune (municipality).[85] The Provincial Assembly approved this request through Decision No. 09/200/PLENIERE/ASPRO/SK of 7 October 2009. These proposals were partly enacted in subsequent legislation, notably Decree No. 012/14 of 18 February 2012, and later consolidated through Decree No. 13/029 of 13 June 2013, which, in its Article 1, elevated Kamituga, Shabunda, Uvira, and Baraka to the rank of cities.[85] However, in July 2015, the Council of Ministers suspended the execution of these decrees.[86] On 27 December 2018, President Joseph Kabila confirmed by presidential decree the status of Uvira, Baraka, and Kamituga as cities of South Kivu, joining the provincial capital, Bukavu.[87][88][89] A 13 June 2019 decree later reinforced the administrative framework for these urban entities.[90]
Traditional governance structures remain significant in the province, particularly through chiefdoms (collectivités) and sectors.[91][92] These entities reflect historical systems of local rule, where authority is often hereditary and determined by ethnic customs before being formally integrated into the state governance framework.[91][92] The head of a chiefdom holds the title of mwami (paramount customary chief), with governance responsibilities extending to groupements, which are led by customary chiefs (chefs de groupement). Groupements are further divided into localités (villages or localities), also governed by customary chiefs.[91][92]
Some of the notable chiefdoms and sectors in South Kivu:[65]
By 2024, South Kivu's population was estimated at approximately 8,147,400, nearly double the 2007 figure of 4,451,663.[10] Population density remains highly uneven, with densely populated highland regions contrasting with sparsely inhabited forested lowlands.[93] In 2007, Kabare, Walungu, Idjwi, and Kalehe Territories, which together accounted for only 15% of the province's total area, contained 38.61% of its population, whereas the more extensive territories of Shabunda, Mwenga, and Fizi, covering 78.08% of the landmass, were home to just 38.12% of residents.[93] Approximately 86.9% of South Kivu's population lived in rural areas at that time. Population concentrations are greatest in the mountainous northern regions, whereas the southern lowland and forest zones remain relatively underpopulated.[93]
The population is ethnically and linguistically diverse, with most of the population belonging to Bantu-speaking groups. According to Congolese scholar Safanto Lukendo Bulongo, the province's inhabitants can broadly be categorized into two prominent socio-political families, the first of which consists of interlacustrine pastoral Bantu groups characterized by centralized political systems governed by hierarchical chieftaincies that control land and people.[93] The second group includes non-centralized Bantu societies, organized into smaller, autonomous kinship-based groups.[93] The province's main ethnic groups include the Bashi (Shi), Bahavu, Bafuliiru, Bavira, Babembe, Barega, as well as Banyindu, Babwari, Babuyu (Buye), Batembo, Basanze (Bajoba), Bakwami, Basongora, Barongeronge, Baholoholo, Baswaga, Banyanga, and Bazimba, among others, alongside various Pygmy ethnic groups.[94][17][18][19][20] These populations are often organized around notions of autochthony, which is a sense of indigeneity profoundly tied to ancestral land and lineage, while non-indigenous communities, such as the Banyamulenge (Tutsi) and Barundi (Hutu), have also long been present.[94][60]
Ethno-geographical distribution varies by territory, with the Bahavu predominantly inhabiting Kalehe and Idjwi; the Bashi residing in Kabare and Walungu; the Bafuliiru and Bavira in Uvira, where the Barundi are also found, particularly in the Ruzizi Plain; the Babembe primarily occupy Fizi, which also hosts the Banyamulenge pastoralists of Rwandan Tutsi origin settled in the Mulenge highlands; and the Barega mainly reside in Mwenga and Shabunda.[60] The Bashi are the province's most dominant group, and for administrative and political purposes, South Kivu's communities are often categorized into two broad groups: the "large family", dominated by Bashi, and the "small family", which includes the Balega and various other minority groups.[94]
Languages and health
The official language is French, used in administration, education, and formal communication, while the dominant national language is Swahili, which serves as a lingua franca across the province and facilitates interethnic communication.[93] Numerous vernacular languages are also spoken at the local level:[93]
Administratively, South Kivu's healthcare system is organized into 34 health zones (zones de santé), which are grouped into five health districts (districts sanitaires).[95][96][97]
The province's geographical position, situated along international borders with Rwanda, Burundi, and Tanzania, has made it a natural destination for cross-border migration.[93] The province is home to many immigrants and refugees who are fleeing regional conflicts or seeking economic opportunities. Internal migration is also widespread, driven by artisanal and industrial mining, especially in gold-rich regions, land shortages in densely populated highlands, insecurity stemming from ongoing armed conflicts, and rural-to-urban migration as people seek improved living standards.[93] A data collection exercise conducted by the Displacement Tracking Matrix (DTM) of the International Organization for Migration (IOM), in partnership with the Réseau d'Action pour le Développement et le Progrès Intégré (RADPI) and the Division Provinciale des Affaires Humanitaires (DIVAH) of South Kivu, from 1 to 31 July 2022, recorded 1,288,574 internally displaced persons (IDPs) across South Kivu.[95] They were identified in 34 health zones and 5,260 villages. The assessment also reported 802,535 returnees, 31,004 IDPs living in spontaneous sites, 64% of IDPs being women and children, and 16% of the provincial population affected by displacement, with 82% coverage of the province.[95] IDPs were largely concentrated in Kalehe, Kabare, Walungu, Uvira, and Fizi Territories, where some zones hosted more than 53,600 displaced people, while returnees were mainly found in Kalehe, Shabunda, and Fizi, reaching up to 71,500 per health zone.[95]
Before gaining political status in the 19th century, the region was inhabited by various Bantu-speaking ethnic groups, including the Bamushi, Bafuliiru, Bahavu, Banyindu,[11][12][13]Babembe, Babuyu, Balega, Babwari,[14][15][16]Baholoholo, Banyanga, Bavira, Bakusu, Batembo, Barongeronge, and Baswaga, along with Pygmy communities.[17][18][19][20] In the late 19th century, the Banyarwanda, whose ancestors had fled Rwanda after falling out with the ruling Nyiginya dynasty, settled in the Itombwe area.[98] Around the same period, Barundi migrants, primarily of Bahutu origin, established communities in the Ruzizi Plain, initially settling between Luvungi and Kiliba before gradually expanding northward toward Kamanyola.[99] Meanwhile, during the scramble for Africa, European explorers were primarily focused on locating the source of the Nile, a mystery that had long intrigued European geographers.[25] Initially, the Ruzizi River was mistakenly believed to be the Nile's source, as it was thought to drain the waters of Lake Tanganyika toward the north. However, further expeditions later confirmed that the Ruzizi River was a tributary of Lake Tanganyika rather than its emissary.[25] The territorial boundaries of what would later become South Kivu were first delineated during the Berlin Conference of 1885, where European powers formalized their claims over African territories. The northeastern boundary of the Congo Free State was established as "a straight line coming from the northern end of Lake Tanganyika and ending at a point located on the 30th east meridian and at 1° 20' south latitude; further north, the border is formed by the 30th meridian east".[21] Under this arrangement, all of Lake Kivu and both banks of the Ruzizi River were incorporated into the Congo Free State.[21] The name "Kivu" gained prominence after explorer David Livingstone encountered it during his travels to Uvira in 1867 and learned the term from local inhabitants.[25]
On 3 September 1886, Administrator General Camille Janssen issued a decree establishing nine districts within the colony, including Stanley Falls District, each governed by a district commissioner.[100] As a result of this administrative restructuring, a territory known as Ruzizi-Kivu was integrated into Stanley Falls District.[25] On 15 July 1898, a new decree renamed Stanley Falls District as Orientale Province, with Stanleyville (now Kisangani) as its capital.[101]
In June 1909, the region became the site of the Kivu Frontier Incident when John Methuen Coote, a British officer from the Uganda Protectorate, established fortified camps at Burungu and Rubona on Lake Kivu.[21] British troops under Coote withdrew from Rubona on 29 June 1909, allowing Belgian forces to take control of the post.[22] The dispute was later resolved in May 1910, when the colonial boundaries between the Belgian Congo, the Uganda Protectorate, and German East Africa (now Rwanda) were officially settled, with eastern Kivu allocated to Uganda and Rwanda.[23]Kivu District was formally created on 28 March 1912, through a royal decree that restructured the Congo into 22 districts.[24][25] The newly established Kivu District was subdivided into three sectors: Lake Edward (with Beni as its administrative center), Tanganyika (Uvira), and Rutshuru (Rutshuru).[25] In 1933, the provinces of the Belgian Congo underwent reorganization, reducing their autonomy. The newly defined provinces were renamed after their capitals, leading to the division of Orientale Province into Stanleyville Province and Costermansville Province.[102] Costermansville Province was renamed Kivu Province in 1947,[102] and in 1951, the Kivu District was further subdivided into Sud-Kivu, Nord-Kivu, and Maniema Districts within Kivu Province.[25][103] The law of 27 April 1962, led to the restructuring of provinces, institutionalizing Kivu Province as an official province alongside Maniema and North Kivu.[25] Until 1962, the province was composed of three districts. A subsequent administrative reorganization in 1963 resulted in the creation of Central Kivu Province, which included the territories of Bukavu, Kabare, Kalehe, Goma, Fizi, Rutshuru, Shabunda, and Uvira.[25][104]
Between 1967 and 1986, much of the southern region of South Kivu was dominated by the Maquis of Fizi, an independent socialist state under the leadership of Laurent-Désiré Kabila. The Maquis de Fizi was the best-organized and most enduring opposition, resistance, and confrontation structure against the dictatorial government of Mobutu Sese Seko in Zaire. Only after the defeats in the Moba Wars was the Maquis of Fizi dissolved.[105]
On 15 November 1988, South Kivu became an independent province, separating from North Kivu and Maniema as part of further administrative decentralization.[26][106]
For three decades, the region has been plagued by armed conflicts and violence. Various armed groups and militias have operated in the area, leading to displacement, human rights abuses, and the disruption of essential services.[107][108][109]
The AFDL's pursuit of Hutu refugees led to widespread violence and atrocities.[113] The AFDL forces, resorting to indiscriminate killings, mass executions, and acts of torture, initiated the First Congo War with a massacre in the Lemera groupement (grouping) of South Kivu, on October 6, 1996. The massacre claimed the lives of several dozen individuals. In a hospital massacre, 37 individuals, including two medical personnel, were killed.[111][114] On October 20, 1996, the AFDL forces killed an unknown number of refugees and Zairian civilians in Rubenga, a village in South Kivu.[115] Another attack occurred on October 21, 1996, in Lubarika village, where an unknown number of Rwandan and Burundian refugees, along with Zairian civilians, were killed by the AFDL forces. Local people were coerced into burying the bodies in four large mass graves.[116] In Kamanyola, on October 20, 1996, the AFDL forces killed an unknown number of refugees and Zairian civilians, disposing of their bodies in pit latrines.[113] The AFDL persisted in launching attacks on South Kivu's refugee camps, rivers, airports, and densely populatedvillages. They carried out civilian executions and acts of terrorism against Zairian civilians in various locations, including Nyantende, Bukavu, Lwakabiri, Kashusha, Ulindi River, Kigulube, Ivela, Balika, Kavumu Airport, Lulingu, and Keisha.[117][118] In May 1997, the AFDL gained control over significant parts of the country and captured the capital, Kinshasa. Mobutu fled the country and Laurent-Désiré Kabila assumed leadership, renaming the country the Democratic Republic of the Congo.[119][120]
From late 1997 onwards, the relationship between President Laurent-Désiré Kabila, Rwanda and the Tutsi soldiers present in the AFDL deteriorated. Laurent-Désiré Kabila's government faced multiple accusations of marginalizing Tutsi political factions, excluding them from his administration, and displaying preferential treatment toward his Katanga clan.[121] In July 1998, driven by fears of a coup d'état, President Laurent-Désiré Kabila relieved Rwandan General James Kabarebe of his position as Chief of Staff of the AFDL, while also issuing an order for the Rwandan Patriotic Army (RPA) soldiers to withdraw from Congolese territory.[122] In response, on 2 August 1998, a faction of Tutsi soldiers mutinied and, with the assistance of the AFDL, the Banyamulenge militias, the Ugandan army (Ugandan People's Defence Force; UPDF), and the Burundi army (Forces Armées Burundaises; FAB), launched a rebellion aimed at overthrowing President Laurent-Désiré Kabila.[121][123] Within a few weeks, this coalition formed the Rassemblement Congolais pour la Démocratie (RCD) and gained control over major urban centers in North and South Kivu, Orientale Province, North Katanga, and even managed to penetrate into the Équateur Province. The war resulted in wide-scale displacement, famine, and a staggering loss of lives. Numerous rebel groups and militias emerged, further intensifying the violence and leading to pervasive human rights violations, including large-scale massacres and incidents of sexual violence.[123][124][125] On August 6, 1998, factions of the ANC/RPA/FAB perpetrated a massacre, claiming the lives of numerous civilians in Uvira, in South Kivu.[126] As civilians sought shelter or attempted to flee the combat zone, they fell victim to the FAC in confrontations, resulting in hundreds of fatalities. Moreover, on the same day, members of the ANC, the armed wing of the RCD rebel, killed 13 people, including the chief of the Kiringye area, in the village of Lwiburule in South Kivu.[126] Another massacre unfolded as elements of the ANC/RPA claimed the lives of 15 individuals in the vicinity of Kivovo, Kigongo, and Kalungwe, all situated in South Kivu. The victims suffered from dagger wounds or were shot near the primary port in Kalundu and at the facilities of SEP Congo.[126] On August 24, 1998, RCD forces and Rwandan soldiers unleashed a massacre in Kasika and neighboring villages in South Kivu, resulting in the deaths of more than 1,000 people, as reported by the United Nations Mapping Report.[126][127] The majority of the recovered bodies, predominantly women and children, were discovered on the 60-kilometer journey from Kilungutwe village to Kasika.[128][129] Prior to their murders, the women were subjected to rape followed by brutal disembowelment using daggers.[127][130] From December 30, 1998, to January 2, 1999, RCD forces committed another massacre, claiming the lives of over 800 civilians, primarily belonging to the Babembe community, in the small village of Makobola in South Kivu. Many victims endured machete attacks or were shot at close range, while others met their demise through burning or drowning in nearby rivers. Infants and young children were callously thrown into deep pit latrines, left to perish, while adults who dared to disobey orders and attempted to escape were met with bullets.[131][132] On May 14, 2000, members of the ANC conducted a massacre resulting in 300 deaths in the village of Katogota in South Kivu.[133][134][135]
The war officially ended in 2003 with the signing of the Sun City Agreement, which aimed to establish a transitional government and promote peace and stability in the DRC. However, sporadic violence and conflicts in the region persisted even after the official end of the war.[122] In an interview with Catholic charity Aid to the Church in Need, in 2024, the Vicar Geneal of the Archdiocese of Bukavu, Floribert Bashimbe, lamented that "for 30 years, we have been in a cycle of violence and eternal new beginnings. One knows when the war starts, but not when it will end".[136]
War and human rights
The Banyamulenge, who actively aligned themselves with the AFDL and RCD factions throughout the duration of the Second Congo War, have been subject to widespread disdain among many Congolese due to their alleged involvement in a range of nefarious activities. These accusations include launching assaults on refugee camps and densely populated villages, engaging in civilian executions, and orchestrating acts of terrorism targeting Zairian civilians across various regions of South and North Kivu. Consequently, a considerable number of Congolese view the Banyamulenge as unwelcome intruders encroaching upon their native territories, thereby intensifying the deep-rooted animosity directed towards them.[137][138]
The UN estimates that in 2005, approximately 45,000 women were raped in South Kivu.[139] It forms various armed groups, including the Rwandan-backed armed groups, Banyamulenge armed groups, Raia Mutomboki, Mai-Mai militias, ADF (Allied Democratic Forces) and FDLR. There have been numerous accounts and allegations of sexual violence perpetrated by members of the Congolese army (Forces Armées de la République Démocratique du Congo; FARDC) in eastern Congo. The 10th Military Region of the newly established Congolese military, led by General Pacifique Masunzu, whose undisciplined former factional soldiers are responsible for human rights violations due to a continuing culture of impunity for military personnel, compounded by challenging living conditions, inadequate remuneration, and insufficient training.[107][109][140] Masunzu is Munyamulenge (South Kivu Banyamulenge Tutsi) who broke with the Rwandan-backed Rally for Congolese Democracy (RCD) back in 2003. He was formerly commander of the 122nd Brigade in the Minembwe area, who in 2005 rebelled against the authorities in defence of the Congolese Banyamulenge, against harassment and physical abuse. Also previously former second in command of 4th Military Region in Kasai-Occidental. Africa Confidential said in 2011 that he 'clearly remains implacably opposed to the Rwandan government'.[141][142] His deputy Colonel Baudouin Nakabaka is a former Mai-Mai fighter with close links to the FDLR. In July 2007, United Nations human rights expert Yakin Erturk called the situation in South Kivu the worst she has ever seen in four years as the global body's special investigator for violence against women. Sexual violence throughout Congo is "rampant," she said, blaming rebel groups, the armed forces and national police. Her statement included that "Frequently women are shot or stabbed in their genital organs, after they are raped. Women, who survived months of enslavement, told me that their tormentors had forced them to eat excrement or the human flesh of murdered relatives".[143]
In June 2014, around 35 people were killed in an attack in the South Kivu village of Mutarule. The attack was apparently part of dispute over cattle.[144]
On 7 August 2015 the 2015 South Kivu earthquake, a magnitude 5.8 earthquake, struck 35km (22mi) north-northeast of Kabare at a depth of 12.0km (7.5mi). One policeman was killed.[145] On 16 July 2020, the Ngumino and Twiganeho militias of the Banyamulenge community perpetrated the Kipupu massacre, which claimed the lives of 220 people in South Kivu village of Kipupu, as reported by provincial lawmakers.[146][147]
Historically, South Kivu was a major producer and exporter of agricultural products, including sugar, cotton, tea, cinchona, coffee, and livestock, as well as food crops such as bananas, potatoes, sorghum, and millet, which were supplied to other regions of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.[148] During the colonial and early post-independence eras, robusta and arabica coffee, tea, and cinchona formed the basis of a thriving plantation-based agricultural economy.[60] However, this modern agricultural sector deteriorated following the Zairianization policies of the 1970s, leading to the mismanagement, abandonment, or conversion of plantations into subsistence plots, while many processing factories, such as those for coffee, tea, and palm oil, were closed, dismantled, or left inoperative due to neglect, insecurity, and poor maintenance.[60][8]
Agriculture remains largely traditional and undercapitalized, with limited access to agricultural subsidies and credit facilities. Unlike regions such as the European Union, where programs like the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) provide substantial government assistance, farmers in South Kivu operate without any institutional financial support.[152] Farmers who resort to small loans, often obtained from local lenders, cooperatives, or village associations, incur additional financial costs, which are reflected in their agricultural income as interest expenses.[152] In certain highland territories, farmers cultivating coffee and sugar cane are subject to a fixed local tax, administered through the chiefdom system, based on the number of fields under cultivation.[152] According to agronomists, this measure, designed by local authorities to promote a shift toward food crop production deemed more beneficial to community food security than industrial crops, also includes the imposition of additional taxes on the sale of agricultural products.[152]
Over 99% of farms in the province are small-scale, with an average landholding of just 0.42 hectares, ranging from 0.50 hectares in Kalehe Territory to a low of 0.20 hectares in Kabare Territory.[150] Large-scale estates constitute less than 1% of total farms, though their average size exceeds 90 hectares, with estates in Kalehe Territory averaging over 126 hectares and those in Kabare Territory surpassing 75 hectares.[150] Typically, farming households in the mountainous regions cultivate between 0.35 and 1 hectare, compared to the national average of 1 to 1.5 hectares per farm.[151] The limited landholdings in these areas are primarily attributed to population pressure and land appropriation by elites who sell plots illicitly. Much of the arable land is owned by a small elite group, including businesspeople, political figures, military officers, and other notables, who exploit landless peasants by compelling them to work on large plantations to meet their own food needs.[151]
Land is acquired in South Kivu through various channels such as inheritance, renting, sharecropping, buying, and customary or state-endorsed donations. Farmers often acquire land through rental or sharecropping agreements made directly with landowners without state oversight, while inheritance, rooted in local customs, involves succession and formal recognition of heirs.[153] Land can also be accessed via state concessions, which require the formal purchase and registration of property, or through customary allocations granted by traditional leaders. In mountainous areas, the Mwami allocates land to his subjects, while in forested regions, this role falls to the clan chief after family consultations.[153] Private land transactions can occur with or without official land titles. When state land is involved, the process must go through public administrative channels to legalize ownership, whereas private land may not require such formalities.[153] Among the customary systems, the Kalinzi allows the Mwami to allocate land as a symbolic gift or recognition, while the Bwasa serves as a localized form of tenancy widely used in Bushi. In Kabare Territory, many farmers have taken legal steps to protect their land rights by obtaining Land Titles or Customary Land Certificates (Certificat foncier coutumier) from the Mwami.[153]
Livestock rearing is prevalent in the high plateaus of Kalehe, Kabare, and Walungu Territories, where farmers raise cattle, goats, pigs, rabbits, and poultry through both individual and collective practices.[60][8] The province features three central livestock systems: individual extensive farming, characterized by small household herds; collective extensive farming, involving pooled herds and shared infrastructure; and intensive small-scale rearing within household compounds.[60] An example of such initiatives includes the Mulume Munene farm, which supports communal livestock management. Fishing in Lake Kivu, Lake Tanganyika, and the surrounding rivers provides food and income for local communities.[60][8]
Mining and natural resources
South Kivu's mineral wealth includes gold, cassiterite, coltan (colombo-tantalite), wolframite, tin, monazite, iron ore, diamonds, amethyst, limestone, and methane gas.[60][8] However, most of the extraction is carried out through artisanal methods, often informally or illegally. Formal industrial mining and production are limited, with only a few formal companies such as SAKIMA (Société Aurifère du Kivu et du Maniema) and CIMENKI (Cimenterie du Kivu) involved.[60][8] The sector remains plagued by fraud, smuggling, and competition among foreign operators, while a persistent jurisdictional dispute between the national and provincial authorities undermines effective resource governance and equitable revenue distribution.[60][8]
Industrial activity is underdeveloped. The province once hosted numerous manufacturing enterprises, including oil mills, sugar refineries, soap factories, beverage plants, and match factories, but most have ceased operations due to armed conflict, looting, infrastructure decay, insecurity, and declining global commodity prices.[8] The few surviving industries are mainly limited to the processing of agricultural products, particularly coffee, tea, quinine, and sugar.[8] However, microfinance remains a notable strength, with 22 banks actively offering credit that empowers local businesses and individuals to grow their incomes.[154]
During Joseph Kabila's presidency (2001–2019), the province was dominated mainly by political figures affiliated with the People's Party for Reconstruction and Democracy (Parti du Peuple pour la Reconstruction et la Démocratie; PPRD) and its allied coalitions like the Alliance of the Presidential Majority (Alliance de la Majorité Présidentielle; AMP) and later the Common Front for Congo (Front Commun pour le Congo; FCC).[155] Political patronage networks linked to Kinshasa enabled members of these coalitions to influence national and provincial governance, with prominent South Kivu elites of the period including Jean-Marie Bulambo Kilosho, Benjamin Mukulungu Igobo, Norbert Basengezi Katintima, Zacharie Lwamira, Néhemie Mwilanya Wilondja (former chief of staff to the president), Marcellin Chishambo (former provincial governor), Justin Bitakwira, and Claude Nyamugabo Bazibuhe.[155] These figures held influential positions across political, administrative, and economic institutions, serving as intermediaries between the central government and provincial constituencies. Meanwhile, opposition figures, including Jean-Claude Kibala N'Kold and François Rubota Masumbuko of the Social Movement for Renewal (Mouvement Social pour le Renouveau; MSR), as well as leaders of the Union for Democracy and Social Progress (UDPS), were marginalized primarily from provincial and national decision-making processes during this era.[155]
In 2019, a consensus reached among nine political leaders resulted in the formation of the FCC–CACH ticket, designating Théo Ngwabidje Kasi as Governor and Marc Malago as Vice-Governor of South Kivu.[155] Following the transfer of power from Kabila to Félix Tshisekedi, the province gained greater prominence at the national level: the position of Chief of Staff, once occupied by Néhémie Mwilanya Wilondja under Kabila, was succeeded by Vital Kamerhe under Tshisekedi. Azarias Ruberwa continued to maintain his political influence with both presidents. The 9 political figures who in 2019 led to the formation of the FCC-CACH ticket:[155]
The collapse of the FCC–CACH coalition in December 2020 brought about a realignment of political alliances nationwide. Through public declarations, several deputies initially elected under FCC-affiliated parties announced their allegiance to the new ruling coalition, the Sacred Union of the Nation (Union sacrée de la Nation).[155] This shift in the parliamentary majority was solidified by the removal of Alexis Thambwe Mwamba's leadership in the Senate, Jeannine Mabunda's dismissal from the National Assembly, and the resignation of Prime Minister Sylvestre Ilunga Ilukamba's government. Members of the UDPS in South Kivu, along with other leaders who aligned themselves with the Sacred Union, obtained ministerial positions and important administrative roles. Meanwhile, figures who maintained allegiance to the FCC and the Kabila faction faced a steep erosion of political clout, as their control over national and provincial bodies weakened considerably.[155]
Political access continues to be defined by the intersection of ethnic and regional affiliations, which underpin legitimacy and representation. At the national level, elite co-optation relies on leaders' ability to mobilize support from their ethnic constituencies within South Kivu, which provides electoral leverage for the central government.[155] However, at the provincial level, ethnic divisions tend to overshadow purely geographic distinctions, as ethnic groups are closely tied to specific territories. This dynamic means that political representation rests on ethno-territorial identity, and once leaders operate from Bukavu or Kinshasa, ethnic belonging becomes the primary driver of their political positioning, with regional origin becoming largely secondary.[155] Prominent business and political actors often straddle economic and political spheres, leveraging their influence through the Federation of Congolese Enterprises (Fédération des Entreprises du Congo; FEC) and other networks. Notable figures include Jean-Pierre Mukubaganyi Mulume, former president of FEC South Kivu and elected national deputy in 2011 on the PPRD list; Olive Mudekereza Namegabe; and Didier Okito Lutundula, elected in 2018 under the Alliance of Democratic Forces of Congo (Alliance des Forces Démocratiques du Congo; AFDC) of Modeste Bahati Lukwebo.[155] Power distribution thus remains deeply partisan and centralized, with Kinshasa exerting control over provincial affairs through the co-optation of political elites based in both the national capital and Bukavu.[155]
Since the 2006 democratic elections, the formation of provincial institutions has been subject to ongoing political negotiations among parties, coalitions, and individual leaders. These power-sharing arrangements often consider the province's ethnic and regional diversity, informally divided into three main political spheres: the Shi Sphere, covering Kabare, Walungu, Kalehe, Mwenga (specifically the chiefdoms of Luhwinja and Burhinyi), and Idjwi; the Lega Sphere, including Mwenga and Shabunda; and the Vira-Bembe Sphere, encompassing Uvira and Fizi.[155] The composition of the provincial government and leadership within the provincial assembly generally echoes these ethno-regional dynamics to maintain a balance of representation. Roles within these institutions are split between administrative and political functions.[155] Administrative posts belong to the permanent civil service, intended for long-term career professionals, while political positions, such as ministerial roles, cabinet advisers, and strategic appointments, are short-term and negotiated through coalition deals following elections.[155] Access to such positions depends on participation in political negotiations and endorsement by the dominant actors, many of whom maintain dual influence in Kinshasa and Bukavu. South Kivu's political system remains highly personalized and fragmented, operating within a structure where ethnic affiliation, patronage, and party loyalty continue to dictate access to governance and the exercise of authority.[155]
Transport
The province has 1,041 km of national roads, of which 222 kilometers, or approximately 17 percent, are paved.[156] There are also 813 kilometers of provincial roads and 2,301 kilometers of agricultural service routes. National Road No. 2 (RN2) serves as the primary route for accessing the mountainous region of South Kivu.[156] It links Bukavu with Goma and serves as a vital passage for the year-round evacuation of agricultural products.[156] Despite crossing the highlands of South Kivu, RN2 intersects territories with distinct geographical and infrastructural characteristics, and within Kabare Territory, three national roads, such as RN2, RN3, and RN5, converge.[156]
The province's air transport system is centered on Kavumu Airport, situated in Kavumu, Kabare Territory, as well as several airstrips. Kavumu Airport's main destinations include Kinshasa, Goma, Lubumbashi, Namoya, Kindu, Kalemie, Minembwe, Kongolo, Shabunda, Lulimba, Lulinga, Kasese, Kalima, as well as Uganda and Rwanda.[156] The province's main navigable waterways are Lakes Kivu and Tanganyika. Lake Kivu is the main navigable waterway located near RN2.[156] Other means of transport, besides boats and trucks for goods and cars for passengers, include motorcycles and bicycles for travelers with light luggage and for the transportation of small merchandise.[156]
↑ Dooley, Elizabeth; Kasimbazi, Emmanuel; Ginzky, Harald; Heuser, Irene L.; Ruppel, Oliver; Kibugi, Robert; Qin, Tianbao; Markus, Till, eds. (March 24, 2021). International Yearbook of Soil Law and Policy 2019. New York City, New York State, United States: Springer International Publishing. pp.130–133. ISBN9783030523176.
1 2 "Sud-Kivu"(PDF) (in French). Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo: MONUSCO. January 2015. p.1. Retrieved 10 January 2024.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 "Localisation des Objectifs de Développement Durable dans le Sud-Kivu: Rapport provincial"[Localization of the Sustainable Development Goals in South Kivu: Provincial Report (August 2017)](PDF). Local2030.org (in French). Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Ministère du Plan, du Budget et Suivi de la mise en œuvre de la Révolution de la Modernité et chargé des relations avec la société Civile. August 2017. p.5. Retrieved 7 October 2025.
1 2 3 Roy, Christopher D., ed. (6 October 1999). "Holoholo People". Art & Life in Africa. Archived from the original on 11 January 2012. Retrieved 26 March 2025.
1 2 John, Luendo Malira (September 2018). "Essai d'etude sur le reamenagement urbain de la ville de Goma"[Study essay on the urban redevelopment of the city of Goma](PDF) (in French). Goma, North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Institut Supérieur de Tourisme de Goma (ISTOU-Goma). p.24. Retrieved 26 March 2025.
↑ Ntibonera, Rodrigue Irenge (2017). "Gestion du tourisme au parc national de Kahuzi Biega"[Tourism management in Kahuzi Biega National Park] (in French). Bukavu, South Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Institut Supérieur Pédagogique (ISP-Bukavu). Retrieved 27 March 2025.
↑ "Lake Kivu and Ruzizi/Rusizi River Basin"(PDF). Abakir.org. Autorité du Bassin du Lac Kivu et de la Rivière Ruzizi/Rusizi (ABAKIR) and Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ). October 2021. pp.22–23. Retrieved 26 March 2025.
1 2 "Sommaire JOS du 20 juin 2013"[Summary of 20 June 2013]. Leganet.cd (in French). Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo. 20 June 2013. Retrieved 2 October 2025.
↑ "Décret n° 18/020 du 30 mai 2018"(PDF). Journal officiel de la République Démocratique du Congo (in French). Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo. 1 July 2019. Col 13–14. Retrieved 29 May 2024.
↑ "Mpox-RDC: le Sud-Kivu passe de 32 à 33 zones de santé touchées"[Mpox-DRC: South Kivu goes from 32 to 33 affected health zones]. Agence Congolaise de Presse (ACP) (in French). Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo. 26 November 2024. Retrieved 7 October 2025.
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