Walungu Territory

Last updated
Walungu Territory
Territory
Territoire de Walungu
Walungu PHOTO DU JOUR DU DIMANCHE 19 SEPTEMBRE 2021.jpg
MONUSCO assist in building walls for a church in 2021
Walungu Territory
CountryFlag of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.svg DR Congo
Province South Kivu
Area
[1]
 • Total
1,800 km2 (700 sq mi)
Population
 (2018) [1]
 • Total
716,671
 • Density400/km2 (1,000/sq mi)
Time zone UTC+2 (CAT)
Official language French
National language Kiswahili

WalunguTerritory is a territory located within the South Kivu Province in the eastern part of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Situated approximately 40 km from Bukavu, it shares borders with Kabare Territory to the north, Mwenga Territory to the south, Uvira Territory and the Ruzizi River, as well as the Republics of Rwanda and Burundi to the east, and Shabunda Territory and part of Kabare Territory to the west. According to the 2018 national census, the region has a population of 716,671, with 672,436 residing in the Ngweshe Chiefdom and 44,235 in the Kaziba Chiefdom. Spanning an area of 1,800 km2, Walungu Territory has a population density of 398 inhabitants per square kilometer. [2]

Contents

Mashi is the most widely spoken language, while French serves as the official language and Kiswahili functions as a national lingua franca. [3] [4] [5] [6] Walungu Territory is considered an important agricultural center in South Kivu, [7] with an economy based on subsistence and industrial farming, livestock breeding, trade, artisanal crafts such as cutting and sewing, carpentry, electronic repairs, and small-scale industries including sawmills, brickyards, and soap production. [8] [9] [3] Mining activities are also significant, although they have contributed to security challenges involving foreign armed groups and local militias, prompting the deployment of United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUSCO) to address human rights violations. [10] [11] [12] [13] On 25 May 2005, the territory was the site of a fatal plane crash when a chartered Maniema Antonov An-28 aircraft operated by Victoria Air crashed into a mountain near Walungu, resulting in the deaths of all 27 people on board. [14]

Geography

Kamanyola high plateau situated in the Ruzizi Plain within the Ngweshe Chiefdom Kamanyola Hills.jpg
Kamanyola high plateau situated in the Ruzizi Plain within the Ngweshe Chiefdom

Walungu Territory is located in South Kivu Province in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. It lies between longitudes 28.44° E and 28.758° E and latitudes 2.692° S and 2.625° S. [15] The territory spans an area of 1,800 square kilometers and sits at an elevation ranging from 1,000 meters above sea level in Kamanyola to over 3,000 meters in the surrounding highlands. [15] The terrain is highly rugged, characterized by mountain ranges, hills, and marshy peneplains. [3] Roughly half of its terrain is situated within the Ruzizi Plain, a vast lowland in the western section of the East African Rift, specifically the Albertine Rift, positioned between the Mitumba Mountains and the Ruzizi River. [16] [17] [18] [19] The territory is bordered by Kabare Territory to the north, Mwenga Territory to the south, Bafuliiru Chiefdom of Uvira Territory, the Ruzizi River, and the Republics of Rwanda and Burundi to the east, and Shabunda Territory and part of Kabare Territory to the west. [3]

Hydrology and environmental challenges

Luzinzi River in August 2019 Luzinzi River, Kaziba Chiefdom, South Kivu, DRC.jpg
Luzinzi River in August 2019

Hydrologically, Walungu Territory is watered by several rivers, the most significant being the Luvinvi, Ulindi, and Kadubo Rivers, most of which eventually feed into the Ruzizi River. [3] [20] Numerous smaller watercourses, including the Kashanja, Cisheke, and Cidubo Rivers, also traverse the territory, converging into larger rivers such as the Mubimbi and Ulindi. [21] Other notable rivers include Nsesha, Mugaba, Luzinzi, Mayi-Mingi, and Gombo. [3] [20] Additionally, the territory contains a small lake, Lake Mudekera, located in the high mountains of Kaziba Chiefdom, recognized as a tourist site. [3]

Environmental degradation presents a major concern for Walungu Territory. Soil erosion, deforestation of protected sites and watersheds, and the regression of forest cover due to population pressures have significantly reduced the available agricultural land. [3] Erosion, in particular, is identified as the primary factor contributing to the decline in soil productivity, affecting more than half of the territory’s households. [3]

Vegetation

Walungu Territory, January 2009 Walungu Territory, January 9, 2009.jpg
Walungu Territory, January 2009

Vegetation consists primarily of grassy savannahs, with scattered woodlands and remnants of forest reserves such as Mugaba and Mushwere. [3] [20] Ngweshe Chiefdom features two primary types of vegetation: natural forests, including those in Kaniola (Lushoze and Mugaba), Tubimbi, and Kabugi, and artificial plantations of eucalyptus, pine, grevillea, cinchona, coffee, and tea trees. [22] Notable plantation areas include Okra, Irabata, Muleke, Cibeke, Isingo, Nduba, and Muzinzi (Kaderhe, Nyangezi). Deforestation has heavily impacted the mountain and hill areas, notably in Businga hills (Nyangezi), Cibeke (Burhale), and the "Mise en garde" escarpment near the Tubimbi Commercial Center, leading to severe soil erosion. [22] In Kaziba Chiefdom, dominant plantations include cypress, eucalyptus, grevillea, and pine trees. The chiefdom also contains altitude forests featuring bamboo and Prunus africana . [23]

Soil types and mineral resources

Ngweshe Chiefdom, July 2020 Ngweshe Chiefdom, Walungu Territory, South Kivu, DRC.jpg
Ngweshe Chiefdom, July 2020

The territory features a complex variety of soils, with ferralsols being the most dominant. These soils, considered transitional between young soils and ancient ferralsols, are classified as humic nitisols, noted for their high carbon content, low base saturation, and acidic pH ranging from 4.5 to 5. [24] They are highly susceptible to erosion, presenting limitations for agricultural activities. [24] Other soil types include clayey-sandy red laterite soils, loose black soils, stony soils, and alluvial soils in the marshlands. [3] Soils in Ngweshe Chiefdom are predominantly clayey and increasingly degraded due to erosion and population pressure. [3] Clayey-sandy soils originating from basaltic rocks are common, particularly in areas with thick, compact layers rich in clay. [21]

Walungu Territory's subsoil is rich in mineral resources, including gold, cassiterite, coltan, wolframite, and iron, much of it unexploited. [3] [10] [25] [20] Some of these deposits were previously mined by the Société Minière et Industrielle du Kivu (SOMINKI), particularly around Luntukulu in the Mulamba groupement. [3]

Climate

Walungu Territory experiences a cold tropical lowland climate, with altitudes ranging from approximately 1,000 meters at Kamanyola in the east to about 2,000 meters at Mulumemunene. [3] [20] The region features two distinct seasons: a dry season from May to September and a rainy season from September to May. [3] [20] Temperatures range from an average of 17°C in July to approximately 20°C in October. Annual rainfall varies between 900 mm and 1,500 mm, with an average of 1,300 mm. Owing to its mountainous setting within the Mitumba massif, Walungu Territory enjoys a mild and relatively dry climate typical of high-altitude environments. [3]

History

Walungu Territory was officially created by Presidential Decree No. 65-221 on May 3, 1967, and it was further amended by Decree No. 82-006 on February 25, 1982. [26]

Conflict and insecurity

Kwilu Rebellion and First Congo War

Kamanyola Division during Shaba I in April 1977 Zairian troops.jpeg
Kamanyola Division during Shaba I in April 1977

Walungu Territory has a tumultuous history marked by conflict and insecurity, stemming from a combination of internal and external factors. In the late 1960s, the region played a significant role during the Mulelist insurgency, where the Armée Nationale Congolaise (ANC) achieved a key victory against the insurgency. [27] [28] During the First Congo War from 1996 to 1997, the region became a battleground due to its strategic location and access to valuable resources. The conflict involved multiple armed groups, including the Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo-Zaire (AFDL), Rwandan Patriotic Army (RPA), and Forces Armées Burundaises (FAB). The AFDL, led by Laurent-Désiré Kabila, emerged as a rebel movement aiming to overthrow the regime of President Mobutu Sese Seko in Zaire. The AFDL received significant support from RPA, led by Paul Kagame, due to concerns about the presence of Rwandan Hutu militias in eastern Zaire. [29] [30] However, reports, including those from the United Nations Security Council, also implicated the AFDL and its allies in massacres and the systematic looting of Zaire's mineral wealth. [31] [32] [33]

In 1996, Walungu Territory was home to a large number of refugee camps as part of the broader "Bukavu camps" network, which housed an estimated 307,499 refugees across Walungu, Kabare, and Kalehe territories. [29] These camps sheltered Rwandan and Burundian refugees who had fled previous conflicts. As the AFDL-RPA troops advanced towards Bukavu, they targeted these camps, often with brutal tactics. On 20 October 1996, AFDL-RPA forces attacked the Kamanyola refugee camp in Walungu Territory, killing an unknown number of refugees and Zairean civilians, with bodies reportedly dumped into pit latrines. [29] On 21 October, AFDL-RPA units executed refugees at Nyarubale in the Kalunga hills as they attempted to flee towards Bukavu. Those who failed Swahili language tests or had Rwandan or Burundian accents were systematically executed. [29] On 26 October, fleeing refugees were ambushed between Nyantende and Walungu-Centre, with 200 to 600 people killed, most of them women, children, and the elderly. On 28 October 1996, five refugees were executed by AFDL-RPA forces in Lwakabiri, west of Bukavu. [29] Following the fall of Bukavu on 29 October, AFDL-RPA forces continued targeting refugee camps to the north, including Kashusha and INERA. On 2 November, a large-scale attack on Kashusha/INERA camp left hundreds of refugees dead. [29] Later, on 22 November, AFDL-RPA troops massacred between 500 and 800 refugees at Chimanga camp after deceiving them with promises of food and repatriation. In early 1997, similar atrocities continued, with reports of torture and executions along the Bukavu-Walungu road. [29] Refugees were often arrested, tortured, and then killed, sometimes with knives. [29]

Second Congo War

Rape survivor near Walungu Congolese woman.jpg
Rape survivor near Walungu

The outbreak of the Second Congo War plunged Walungu Territory into further turmoil. The conflict began when Laurent-Désiré Kabila, who had seized power from Mobutu, clashed with his former Rwandan and Ugandan allies. Tensions arose as Kabila was accused of marginalizing Tutsi factions in his government while favoring his Katangan allies. [34] Allegations also surfaced that the United States provided military assistance to Rwanda before the conflict, reportedly to secure access to the DRC's rich natural resources. A U.S. Army Rwanda Interagency Assessment Team (RIAT) was deployed in July 1998 to train Rwandan military units. [35] [36] Some reports, including those by war correspondent Keith Harmon Snow, implicated U.S. figures such as Roger Winter of the U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants in supporting insurgencies. [35] In July 1998, Kabila, fearing a coup d'état , dismissed Rwandan General James Kabarebe as Chief of Staff of the Congolese army and ordered all RPA soldiers to withdraw from Congolese territory. [37] [38] This decision infuriated Rwanda and Uganda, prompting them to support a new rebel faction, the Rassemblement Congolais pour la Démocratie-Goma (RCD-Goma). On 2 August 1998, mutinous Congolese troops allied with Rwanda and Uganda announced their rebellion via Radio-Télévision Nationale Congolaise (RTNC) in Goma. [39] The RCD-Goma, heavily supported by Rwanda, swiftly captured Goma without resistance. The city remained under RCD-Goma and RPA control for nearly three years, from August 1998 to January 2001. [39]

The war was characterized by extreme violence against civilians. On 3 August 1998, at Kavumu Airport near Bukavu, rebel Banyamulenge soldiers and RPA units executed at least 38 Congolese officers and 100 unarmed soldiers, forcing them to lie on the airport runway before their execution. [40] That same month, RCD-Goma and RPA forces launched violent raids in Bukavu, killing, raping, and terrorizing civilians, particularly in Kadutu and Ibanda. Despite its rapid territorial gains, the RCD-Goma struggled to control rural areas due to its Tutsi-dominated leadership, dependence on Rwanda, and violent repression of civilians. [40] Widespread human rights violations, including arbitrary arrests, torture, and forced disappearances, were reported in Bukavu and Uvira between 1998 and 2002, with many detainees transported to Goma, Kisangani, or Rwanda, where they vanished. [40]

Rape victims who have been successfully reintegrated into their communities assemble in a "peace hut" near Walungu Territory DRC Rwanda line.jpg
Rape victims who have been successfully reintegrated into their communities assemble in a "peace hut" near Walungu Territory

One of the war's most notorious massacres occurred on 24 August 1998, when RCD-Goma and RPA forces massacred over 1,000 civilians in the villages of Kilungutwe, Kalama, and Kasika in Mwenga Territory, 108 kilometers from Bukavu. [40] The massacre, targeting women, children, and the elderly, was carried out with extreme brutality—women were raped, tortured, and subjected to genital mutilation, while infants and children were thrown into pit latrines. [40] The perpetrators pillaged and set fire to villages before withdrawing. [40] Similar atrocities followed in Kitutu (2 September 1998), Bushaku (21–22 October 1998), and Bitale (19 February 1999). Between December 1998 and January 1999, clashes between RCD-Goma and RPA forces and pro-Kabila militias in Walungu led to heavy civilian casualties. [40] After the assassination of Laurent-Désiré Kabila in January 2001, his successor, Joseph Kabila, initiated peace efforts, including the deployment of the United Nations Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo (MONUC) observers and negotiations for a ceasefire. [41] However, fighting persisted in many parts of the country, particularly in the eastern provinces. Efforts to reach a political settlement gained momentum with the signing of peace agreements between the DRC and its main foreign adversaries, Rwanda and Uganda, in 2002. [41] The Pretoria Agreement, signed on 30 July 2002, called for the withdrawal of Rwandan troops in exchange for the dismantling of Hutu armed groups linked to the Rwandan genocide. [41] A similar accord with Uganda was signed in Luanda on 6 September, leading to a phased withdrawal of Ugandan forces. These agreements marked a turning point, as they set the stage for broader negotiations involving all major Congolese factions. [41]

Despite the withdrawal of foreign troops, internal conflicts persisted, particularly in North and South Kivu, where Kabila's government—supported by the Mayi-Mayi factions, FDD, and ALiR—battled the ANC (RCD-Goma's armed division) and Rwandan RPA soldiers. [41] [42] In late 2002, senior figures in RCD-Goma sought to consolidate their control by negotiating with the political wing of the Mudundu 40 Mayi-Mayi movement. Led by Odilon Kurhenga Muzimu and Patient Mwendanga, the political faction agreed to collaborate in neutralizing the movement's military wing, which was commanded by Albert Kahasha Murhula (Foka Mike) and had fortified positions in Burhale. [42] However, when the negotiations failed to dismantle the group, RCD-Goma dismissed Mwendanga from his post as Governor of South Kivu in March 2003. This led to a military offensive in Walungu Territory, where ANC forces, backed by Rwandan troops, launched attacks on Mudundu 40 strongholds. [42] Between 5–13 April 2003, ANC and Rwandan forces used heavy weaponry to assault the villages of Mwegerera, Lukumbo, Karhundu, and Izirangabo, resulting in the deaths of dozens of civilians. At least 27 women were raped, six people disappeared, and mass graves were discovered in multiple locations near Walungu. [42] As part of a broader campaign of repression, ANC forces destroyed schools and healthcare facilities in retaliation against the local population for its alleged support of Mudundu 40. [42]

The war officially concluded in 2003 with the signing of the Global and All-Inclusive Agreement, which led to the formation of a transitional government. [43] However, the eastern DRC remained volatile, with numerous armed factions continuing to operate beyond state control. [44]

Ongoing conflict

MONUSCO troops in Walungu Territory, March 2016 Walungu, Sud Kivu, RD Congo- Une patrouille de domination de terrain a l'aide de vehicules blindes de transport de troupes dans le cadre de la protection des civils par la MONUSCO dans une localite reculee du Sud Kivu.jpg
MONUSCO troops in Walungu Territory, March 2016

Since 2003, the region has been plagued by persistent insecurity and conflict due to armed groups like the FDLR (Forces Démocratiques de Libération du Rwanda) and Rasta militia (les Rasta), remnants of Interahamwe, perpetuating violence and instability. The Rasta militia, an ultra-violent armed group composed of approximately fifteen Congolese dissidents, emerged in the region and was responsible for several brutal massacres, most notably in the Nindja Chiefdom and Kaniola groupement between 2004 and 2007. [44]

Another source of ongoing conflict is the traditional power struggle and the presence of vigilance committees; armed groups formed to protect local communities. [44] Nonetheless, their presence has also generated internal tensions and conflicts. The head of the Ngweshe Chiefdom in Walungu Territory's decision to depose the leader of the Kaniola groupement without providing a justifiable reason fueled tensions. This expulsion, coupled with the existence of armed vigilance committees and the popularity of Foka Mike, a local figure, further aggravated the power struggle and accusations of militancy. [44] Civil society in Kaniola and other parts of the region has voiced grievances against the chieftaincy chief, accusing him of lacking transparency and disregarding the demands and expectations of local populations. [44] Parenthetically, the issue of access to land has become a severe source of insecurity. The competition between customary land practices and formal land law has created conflicts over land management and access. Customary land rights, often precarious and unprotected, leave many farmers susceptible to dispossession and exploitation by influential private individuals who convert large portions of land into private plantations. This plight has exacerbated land inequalities, as small-scale producers are constrained to rent land from large landowners under insecure oral agreements. [44]

Administrative subdivisions

Walungu Territory is administratively divided into two chiefdoms (chefferies), each further subdivided into groupements (groups) and localités (villages). The territory is governed by a territorial administrator and two assistant administrators, aiming to establish closer connections between the rulers and the ruled. Each chiefdom is headed by a chieftaincy commonly known as "Mwami" or "Bami", responsible for upholding customs and overseeing succession, which is traditionally passed down from father to son. The customary chiefs work in coordination with the administrative authority but maintain some level of independence. Each groupement is led by a groupement head, often from the royal family directly or indirectly. The village chiefs (chefs de village) within each groupement are appointed and dismissed by the paramount groupement leader after consulting the community. [45] [46]

Chiefdoms (chefferies)

       NoChiefdomsTotal area (km2)Chief townGroupements (groupings)
1. Ngweshe Chiefdom 1,599 km2Musunda1. Burhale
2. Ikkoma
3. Irongo
4. Izege
5. Kamanyola
6. Kamisimbi
7. Kaniola-Kanyola
8. Karhongo
9. Lubona
10. Luchiga
11. Lurhala
12. Mulamba
13. Mushinga
14. Nduba
15. Rubimbi
16. Walungu
2. Kaziba Chiefdom 195 km2Lwanguku1. Bulumbwe
2. Butuza
3. Chibanda
4. Chihumba
5. Chirimiro
6. Kabembe
7. Kahungwe
8. Kashanga
9. Kashozi
10. Chiburhi/Ciburhi
11. Lukube
12. Muchingwa
13. Muhumba
14. Mulambi
15. Ngando

References

  1. 1 2 "Sources of Conflict In Walungu Territory: Kalinzi, Maji and Mujakazi" (PDF). usaid. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 16, 2023.
  2. ↑ "Sources of Conflict In Walungu Territory: Kalinzi, Maji and Mujakazi" (PDF). Arlington County, Virginia, United States: Management Systems International (MSI). August 21, 2019. p. 3. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 16, 2023. Retrieved 2023-07-17.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 "ADIB: Territoire de Walungu". Adib.cd (in French). Bukavu, South Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Association pour la Défense des Intérêts du Kivu-Bukavu (ADIB). Retrieved 26 April 2025.
  4. ↑ Shafali, Pierre Bakenga (2012). "Dynamique familiale et gestion de l'environnement en chefferie de Ngweshe. une analyse praxéo-interdiscursive" [Family dynamics and environmental management in the Ngweshe chiefdom: a praxeo-interdiscursive analysis] (in French). Bukavu, South Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Université Officielle de Bukavu (UOB). Retrieved 15 April 2025.
  5. ↑ Murhi-Orhakube, Constantin Bashi (2012). "Grammaire du mashi: Phonologie, morphologie, mots grammaticaux et lexicaux" [Mashi Grammar: Phonology, Morphology, Grammatical and Lexical Words](PDF) (in French). Paris, France: Éditions L'Harmattan. pp. 15–18. ISBN   978-2-296-56828-0 . Retrieved 26 April 2025.
  6. ↑ Manyanya, Lévi Ngangura (19 July 2022). "Alimentation traditionnelle et sagesse africaine: La nourriture vue à travers les proverbes et maximes des Bashi de la R.D. Congo" [Traditional Food and African Wisdom: Food Seen Through the Proverbs and Maxims of the Bashi of the D.R. Congo](PDF) (in French). Paris, France: Éditions L'Harmattan. pp. 13–37. ISBN   978-2-14-027039-0 . Retrieved 26 April 2025.
  7. ↑ Shafali, Pierre Bakenga (2012). "Dynamique familiale et gestion de l'environnement en chefferie de Ngweshe. une analyse praxéo-interdiscursive" [Family dynamics and environmental management in the Ngweshe chiefdom: a praxeo-interdiscursive analysis] (in French). Bukavu, South Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Université Officielle de Bukavu (UOB). Retrieved 15 April 2025.
  8. ↑ Shafali, Pierre Bakenga (2012). "Dynamique familiale et gestion de l'environnement en chefferie de Ngweshe. une analyse praxéo-interdiscursive" [Family dynamics and environmental management in the Ngweshe chiefdom: a praxeo-interdiscursive analysis] (in French). Bukavu, South Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Université Officielle de Bukavu (UOB). Retrieved 15 April 2025.
  9. ↑ Shafali, Pierre Bakenga (2012). "Dynamique familiale et gestion de l'environnement en chefferie de Ngweshe. une analyse praxéo-interdiscursive" [Family dynamics and environmental management in the Ngweshe chiefdom: a praxeo-interdiscursive analysis] (in French). Bukavu, South Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Université Officielle de Bukavu (UOB). Retrieved 15 April 2025.
  10. 1 2 "Cartographie des sites miniers dans l'est de la RDC – Walungu" [Mapping of mining sites in eastern DRC – Walungu](PDF). Ipisresearch.be (in French). Antwerp, Belgium: International Peace Information Service (IPIS). October 2022. pp. 1–6. Retrieved 26 April 2025.
  11. ↑ Kashenya, Ishara Yambisi bin (19 July 2024). "Walungu: reprise de l'exploitation minière artisanale du Wolframite à Kamanyola" [Walungu: Resumption of artisanal wolframite mining in Kamanyola]. Laprunelle Verte (in French). Retrieved 26 April 2025.
  12. ↑ "Democratic Republic of Congo: Civilians at Risk During Disarmament Operations – Human Rights Abuses of Civilians by Armed Groups in Walungu". Human Rights Watch . New York, New York, United States. 29 December 2004.
  13. ↑ "Sud-Kivu: l'exploitation artisanale de l'or interdite dans le site de Mukungwe" [South Kivu: Artisanal gold mining banned at the Mukungwe site]. Radio Okapi (in French). 11 September 2013. Retrieved 26 April 2025.
  14. ↑ "Aircraft crashes in Walungu, 26 feared dead". Congoplanet.com (in French). 26 May 2005. Retrieved 26 April 2025.
  15. 1 2 Ndeko, Adrien Byamungu; Géant, Chuma Basimine; Chokola, Gloire Musafiri; Zihalirwa, Parent Kulimushi (24 October 2022). "Soil properties shape the arbuscular mycorrhizal status of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) and soil mycorhizal potential in Kabare and Walungu territories, Eastern DR Congo" (PDF). Research Square. Durham, North Carolina, United States. p. 4. Retrieved 18 July 2023.
  16. ↑ Mondo, Jean M.; Chuma, Géant B.; Kwalya, Pecos B.; Balagizi, Sébastien A.; Ndjadi, Serge S.; Mugumaarhahama, Yannick; Balezi, Alphonse Z.; Karume, Katcho; Mushagalusa, Gustave N.; Civava, René M. (2021-12-01). "Neglected and underutilized crop species in Kabare and Walungu territories, Eastern D.R. Congo: Identification, uses and socio-economic importance". Journal of Agriculture and Food Research. 6: 100234. doi: 10.1016/j.jafr.2021.100234 . ISSN   2666-1543.
  17. ↑ Shafali, Pierre Bakenga (2012). "Dynamique familiale et gestion de l'environnement en chefferie de Ngweshe. une analyse praxéo-interdiscursive" [Family dynamics and environmental management in the Ngweshe chiefdom: a praxeo-interdiscursive analysis] (in French). Bukavu, South Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Université Officielle de Bukavu (UOB). Retrieved 15 April 2025.
  18. ↑ Mapatano, Bagalwa; Bahuga, Bapolisi; Muhigwa, Bahananga; Mwapu, Isumbisho (October 2015). Cahiers du CERPRU (in French). Paris, France: Publibook/Société écrivains. p. 295. ISBN   9782342043334.
  19. ↑ "Sources of Conflict In Walungu Territory: Kalinzi, Maji and Mujakazi" (PDF). Management Systems International. 21 August 2019. pp. 3–5. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 July 2023. Retrieved 15 July 2023.
  20. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Rapport final des consultations participatives de la base pour l'élaboration du Document de Stratégies de Réduction de la Pauvreté (DSRP) Territoire de Walungu - Province du Sud Kivu" [Final report of the participatory grassroots consultations for the development of the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) Walungu Territory - South Kivu Province](PDF). The University of Texas at Austin . 2004. pp. 18–19. Retrieved 18 July 2023.
  21. 1 2 Erhahamoba, Prince Imani (2014). "Identification des facteurs contraignant la production du bananier "musa spp" à Walungu" [Identification of factors constraining the production of the "musa spp" banana tree in Walungu] (in French). Bukavu, South Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Université Evangélique en Afrique (UEA). Retrieved 26 April 2025.
  22. 1 2 Shafali, Pierre Bakenga (2012). "Dynamique familiale et gestion de l'environnement en chefferie de Ngweshe. une analyse praxéo-interdiscursive" [Family dynamics and environmental management in the Ngweshe chiefdom: a praxeo-interdiscursive analysis] (in French). Bukavu, South Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Université Officielle de Bukavu (UOB). Retrieved 15 April 2025.
  23. ↑ "Kaziba Documentation" (PDF). Kazibaonline.com (in French). South Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo. 2019. pp. 25–29. Retrieved 20 July 2023.
  24. 1 2 Namegabe, Janvier Mushagalusa (2013). "Effets de la fréquence des coupes des feuilles sur la croissance et le rendement de manioc sous différentes densités de plantation à Walungu et dans la plaine de la Ruzizi" [Effects of leaf cutting frequency on cassava growth and yield under different planting densities in Walungu and the Ruzizi plain] (in French). Bukavu, South Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Université Evangélique en Afrique (UEA). Retrieved 26 April 2025.
  25. ↑ Shafali, Pierre Bakenga (2012). "Dynamique familiale et gestion de l'environnement en chefferie de Ngweshe. une analyse praxéo-interdiscursive" [Family dynamics and environmental management in the Ngweshe chiefdom: a praxeo-interdiscursive analysis] (in French). Bukavu, South Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Université Officielle de Bukavu (UOB). Retrieved 15 April 2025.
  26. ↑ "Sources of Conflict In Walungu Territory: Kalinzi, Maji and Mujakazi" (PDF). Arlington County, Virginia, United States: Management Systems International (MSI). August 21, 2019. p. 3. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 16, 2023. Retrieved 2023-07-17.
  27. ↑ Mazrui, Ali AlʼAmin; Tidy, Michael (1984). Nationalism and new states in Africa from about 1935 to the present. London, United Kingdom: Pearson Education. p. 218. ISBN   9780435941451.
  28. ↑ Gribbin, Robert E. (2005). In the Aftermath of Genocide: The U.S. Role in Rwanda. Bloomington, Indiana, United States: iUniverse. p. 190. ISBN   9780595344116.
  29. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 "Attacks against Hutu refugees - Walungu and Kabare (South Kivu)". Mapping-report.org. The Democratic Republic of the Congo 1993-2003 United Nations Mapping Report. 15 June 2009. Retrieved 19 July 2023.
  30. ↑ Cooper, Tom (2013). Great Lakes Holocaust: The First Congo War, 1996-1997. Havertown, Pennsylvania, United States: Casemate Publishers. pp. 37–50. ISBN   9781909384651.
  31. ↑ "Letter dated 15 October 2002 from the Secretary-General addressed to the President of the Security Council" (PDF). United Nations Security Council . New York, New York, United States. October 16, 2002. Retrieved October 24, 2024.
  32. ↑ Rever, Judi (September 25, 2023). "Rwanda is the 'Wild West' and should be removed from the mineral supply chain". Canadian Dimension . Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. Archived from the original on November 2, 2024. Retrieved October 24, 2024.
  33. ↑ "Blood Minerals: The laundering of DRC's 3T minerals by Rwanda and private entities" (PDF). London, England, United Kingdom: Amsterdam & Partners LLP. April 2024. pp. 25–51. Archived (PDF) from the original on August 30, 2024. Retrieved October 24, 2024.
  34. ↑ "The Second Congo War (August 1998–January 2001)". Mapping-report.org. The Democratic Republic of the Congo 1993-2003 United Nations Mapping Report. 15 June 2009. Retrieved 6 March 2025.
  35. 1 2 Snow, Keith Harmon (17 December 2023). "Exposing U.S. agents of low intensity warfare in Africa: The policy wonks behind covert warfare and humanitarian fascism". African Agenda. Archived from the original on 24 January 2025. Retrieved 6 March 2025.
  36. ↑ Madsen, Wayne (30 August 2001). "America's covert operations in the Great Lakes Region". L'HORA. Retrieved 6 March 2025.
  37. ↑ Muiu, M.; Martin, G. (5 January 2009). A New Paradigm of the African State: Fundi wa Afrika. London, England, United Kingdom: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 128. ISBN   978-0-230-61831-2.
  38. ↑ Katulondi, Hubert Kabasu Babu (14 March 2019). Democratisation in the Dr Congo from Joseph Mobutu to Joseph Kabila: A Modelled Exploration. Bloomington, Indiana, United States: AuthorHouse. ISBN   978-1-7283-8287-6.
  39. 1 2 "Second Congo War – Attacks on other civilian populations – North Kivu". Mapping-report.org. The Democratic Republic of the Congo 1993-2003 United Nations Mapping Report. 15 June 2009. Archived from the original on 30 November 2024. Retrieved 6 March 2025.
  40. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "Second Congo War – Attacks on other civilian populations – South Kivu". Mapping-report.org. The Democratic Republic of the Congo 1993-2003 United Nations Mapping Report. 15 June 2009. Retrieved 19 July 2023.
  41. 1 2 3 4 5 "DRC Towards Transition (January 2001–June 2003)". Mapping-report.org. The Democratic Republic of the Congo 1993-2003 United Nations Mapping Report. 15 June 2009. Retrieved 6 March 2025.
  42. 1 2 3 4 5 "Towards Transition – South Kivu". Mapping-report.org. The Democratic Republic of the Congo 1993-2003 United Nations Mapping Report. 15 June 2009. Retrieved 6 March 2025.
  43. ↑ "Global and Inclusive Agreement on Transition in the DR Congo: Inter-Congolese Dialogue - Political negotiations on the peace process and on transition in the DRC". reliefweb.int. ReliefWeb. 16 December 2002. Retrieved 6 March 2025.
  44. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Bouvy, Alexis (February 2015). "Au-delà de la stabilisation: Comprendre les dynamiques de conflit dans le Nord et le Sud Kivu en République Démocratique du Congo" (PDF). International Alert (in French). London, United Kingdom. pp. 25–27. Retrieved 20 July 2023.
  45. ↑ "Loi organique n° 08/016 du 07 octobre 2008 portant composition, organisation et fonctionnement des Entités Territoriales Décentralisées et leurs rapports avec l'Etat et les Provinces". www.leganet.cd. Retrieved 2023-07-20.
  46. ↑ Mushi, Ferdinand Mugumo (January 2013). "Insecurity and Local Governance in Congo's South Kivu" (PDF). IDS OpenDocs. p. 7. Retrieved 2023-07-21.

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